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Introduction. Clostridioides difficile is an enteric pathogen that causes a serious toxin-mediated colitis in humans. Bacterial exotoxins and sporulation are critical virulence components that contribute to pathogenesis, and disease transmission and relapse, respectively. Therefore, reducing toxin production and sporulation could significantly minimize C. difficile pathogenicity and disease outcome in affected individuals. Aim. This study investigated the efficacy of a natural flavone glycoside, baicalin, in reducing toxin synthesis, sporulation and spore germination in C. difficile in vitro. Methodology. Hypervirulent C. difficile isolates BAA 1870 or 1803 were cultured in brain heart infusion broth with or without the subinhibitory concentration (SIC) of baicalin, and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h under strictly anaerobic conditions. The supernatant was harvested after 24 h for determining C. difficile toxin production by ELISA. In addition, a similar experiment was performed wherein samples were harvested for assessing total viable counts, and heat-resistant spore counts at 72 h of incubation. Furthermore, C. difficile spore germination and spore outgrowth kinetics, with or without baicalin treatment, was measured in a plate reader by recording optical density at 600 nm. Finally, the effect of baicalin on C. difficile toxin, sporulation and virulence-associated genes was investigated using real-time quantitative PCR. Results. The SIC of baicalin significantly reduced toxin synthesis, sporulation and spore outgrowth when compared to control. In addition, C. difficile genes critical for pathogenesis were significantly down-regulated in the presence of baicalin. Conclusion. Our results suggest that baicalin could potentially be used to control C. difficile , and warrant future studies in vivo.

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This study investigated the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacies of baicalin (BC), a plant-derived flavone glycoside, in reducing the severity of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) in a mouse model. In the prophylactic trial, C57BL/6 mice were provided with BC (0, 11, and 22 mg/L in drinking water) from 12 days before C. difficile challenge through the end of the experiment, whereas BC administration started day 1 post challenge in the therapeutic trial. Both challenge and control groups were infected with 106 CFU/mL of hypervirulent C. difficile BAA 1803 spores or sterile PBS, and the clinical and diarrheal scores were recorded for 10 days post challenge. On day 2 post challenge, fecal and tissue samples were collected from mice prophylactically administered with BC for microbiome and histopathologic analysis. Both prophylactic and therapeutic supplementation of BC significantly reduced the severity of colonic lesions and improved CDI clinical progression and outcome compared with control (p < 0.05). Microbiome analysis revealed a significant increase in Gammaproteobacteria and reduction in the abundance of protective microbiota (Firmicutes) in antibiotic-treated and C. difficile-infected mice compared with controls (p < 0.05). However, baicalin supplementation favorably altered the microbiome composition, as revealed by an increased abundance in beneficial bacteria, especially Lachnospiraceae and Akkermansia. Our results warrant follow-up investigations on the use of BC as an adjunct to antibiotic therapy to control gut dysbiosis and reduce C. difficile infection in humans.

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Advances in metabolomics research have yielded an avenue for utilizing this laboratory-based modality as a platform for clinical diagnosis, identification of novel biomarkers, and longitudinally monitoring the health status of individuals from normal physiological and pathophysiological perspectives. This chapter provides insight on the application of urinalysis in health and disease from the standpoint of deciphering a larger span of metabolite and biomarker identification using metabolomics, specifically focusing on infectious diseases, oncology, metabolic, and inflammatory diseases in humans.

Clostridioides difficile is a spore-forming enteric pathogen of public health concern causing a toxin-mediated diarrhea in humans. In several countries, the bacterium has evolved as a hypervirulent, antibiotic-resistant pathogen with concerns for its nosomial and communityassocaited routes for disease transmission. Although the exact routes for community-associated infection have not been substantially elucidated, recent surveillance and genetic diversity analysis of community-borne isolates indicate for the potential spillover of the pathogen amongst the human, animal and environment interfaces. This review article highlights the importance of One Health approach for the control of C. difficile infection.