SUMMARY The ectopic expression of transcription factors can reprogram cell fate, yet it is unknown how the initial binding of factors to the genome relates functionally to the binding seen in the minority of cells that become reprogrammed. We report a map of Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc (O, S, K, and M) on the human genome during the first 48 hours of reprogramming fibroblasts to pluripotency. Three striking aspects of the initial chromatin binding events include: An unexpected role for c-Myc in facilitating OSK chromatin engagement, the primacy of O, S, and K as pioneer factors at enhancers of genes that promote reprogramming, and megabase-scale chromatin domains spanned by H3K9me3, including many genes required for pluripotency, that prevent initial OSKM binding and impede the efficiency of reprogramming. We find diverse aspects of initial factor binding that must be overcome in the minority of cells that become reprogrammed.

SUMMARY Pioneer transcription factors (TFs) access silent chromatin and initiate cell fate changes, using diverse types of DNA binding domains (DBDs). FoxA, the paradigm pioneer TF, has a winged helix DBD that resembles linker histone and thereby binds its target sites on nucleosomes and in compacted chromatin. Herein we compare the nucleosome and chromatin targeting activities of Oct4 (POU DBD), Sox2 (HMG box DBD), Klf4 (zinc finger DBD), and c-Myc (bHLH DBD), which together reprogram somatic cells to pluripotency. Purified Oct4, Sox2, and Klf4 proteins can bind nucleosomes in vitro, and in vivo they preferentially target silent sites enriched for nucleosomes. Pioneer activity relates simply to the ability of a given DBD to target partial motifs displayed on the nucleosome surface. Such partial motif recognition can occur by coordinate binding between factors. Our findings provide insight into how pioneer factors can target naïve chromatin sites.

A strong connection exists between the cell cycle and mechanisms required for executing cell fate decisions in a wide-range of developmental contexts. Terminal differentiation is often associated with cell cycle exit, whereas cell fate switches are frequently linked to cell cycle transitions in dividing cells. These phenomena have been investigated in the context of reprogramming, differentiation and trans-differentiation but the underpinning molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Most progress to address the connection between cell fate and the cell cycle has been made in pluripotent stem cells, in which the transition through mitosis and G1 phase is crucial for establishing a window of opportunity for pluripotency exit and the initiation of differentiation. This Review will summarize recent developments in this area and place them in a broader context that has implications for a wide range of developmental scenarios.

The PRH (proline-rich homeodomain) [also known as Hex (haematopoietically expressed homeobox)] protein is a critical regulator of vertebrate development. PRH is able to regulate cell proliferation and differentiation and is required for the formation of the vertebrate body axis, the haematopoietic and vascular systems and the formation of many vital organs. PRH is a DNA-binding protein that can repress and activate the transcription of its target genes using multiple mechanisms. In addition, PRH can regulate the nuclear transport of specific mRNAs making PRH a member of a select group of proteins that control gene expression at the transcriptional and translational levels. Recent biophysical analysis of the PRH protein has shown that it forms homo-oligomeric complexes in vivo and in vitro and that the proline-rich region of PRH forms a novel dimerization interface. Here we will review the current literature on PRH and discuss the complex web of interactions centred on this multifunctional protein.

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The proline-rich homeodomain protein (PRH/Hex) regulates transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences and regulates mRNA transport by binding to translation initiation factor eIF4E. Protein kinase CK2 plays multiple roles in the regulation of gene expression and cell proliferation. Here, we show that PRH interacts with the β subunit of CK2 in vitro and in cells and that CK2 phosphorylates PRH. Phosphorylation of PRH by CK2 inhibits the DNA binding activity of this protein and dephosphorylation restores DNA binding indicating that this modification acts as a reversible switch. We show that phosphorylation of the homeodomain is sufficient to block DNA binding and we identify two amino acids within this the domain that are phosphorylated by CK2: S163 and S177. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrates that mutation of either of these residues to glutamic acid partially mimics phosphorylation but is insufficient to completely block DNA binding whereas an S163E/S177E double mutation severely inhibits DNA binding. Significantly, the S163E and S177E mutations and the S163E/S177E double mutation all inhibit the ability of PRH to regulate transcription in cells. Since these amino acids are conserved between many homeodomain proteins, our results suggest that CK2 may regulate the activity of several homeodomain proteins in this manner.

Pioneer transcription factors (TFs) such as OCT4 can target silent genes embedded in nucleosome-dense regions. How nucleosome interaction enables TFs to target chromatin and determine cell identity remains elusive. Here, we systematically dissect OCT4 to show that nucleosome binding is encoded within the DNA-binding domain and yet can be uncoupled from free DNA binding. Furthermore, accelerating the binding kinetics of OCT4 to DNA enhances nucleosome binding. In cells, uncoupling nucleosome binding diminishes the ability of OCT4 to individually access closed chromatin, while more dynamic nucleosome binding results in expansive genome scanning within closed chromatin. However, both uncoupling and enhancing nucleosome binding are detrimental to inducing pluripotency from differentiated cells. Remarkably, stable interactions between OCT4 and nucleosomes are continuously required for maintaining the accessibility of pluripotency enhancers in stem cells. Our findings reveal how the affinity and residence time of OCT4-nucleosome complexes modulate chromatin accessibility during cell fate changes and maintenance. 3 MAIN To maintain cell identity, TFs are often associated with accessible enhancers and promoters of active genes. However, during cell fate changes, certain TFs target silent genes within closed chromatin, acting as "pioneer factors" 1 . For instance, Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc (OSKM) predominantly occupy open chromatin to maintain pluripotency in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) 2-4 . Yet, during early reprogramming of fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), OSK, but not c-Myc, act as pioneer factors 5-9 .Nonetheless, binding of OSK to open chromatin has also been suggested to be important for reprogramming 10,11 . To date, it has not been possible to separate the conventional open chromatin binding from closed chromatin targeting, limiting the ability to directly examine the role of pioneer activity in pluripotency.We have previously shown that OSK can directly interact with nucleosomes like the paradigm pioneer factor FoxA, supporting a link between pioneer activity and nucleosome binding [12][13][14][15][16][17] . A systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) study has revealed that a wide variety of DNA-binding domains (DBDs) can bind nucleosomes in vitro 18 . Commonly, DBDs containing short anchoring α helices have been shown to interact most strongly with nucleosomes in vitro 19 . However, FoxA-DBD requires an extra helical region to bind nucleosomes and open chromatin, suggesting that DBDs may not contain the full pioneer capacity 15,20 . Recently, the cryo-EM structure of OCT4-DBD co-bound with SOX2-DBD to an engineered nucleosome has shown a potential OCT4-SOX2 nucleosome readout that involves the OCT4 POU-specific domain (POUS) and SOX2 high mobility group (HMG), but not the POU-homeodomain (POUHD) of OCT4-DBD 21 . The cooperative interaction between OCT4 and SOX2 is critical for pluripotency

Sox proteins are a family of lineage-associated transcription factors. They regulate expression of genes involved in control of self-renewal and multipotency in both developmental and adult stem cells. Overexpression of Sox proteins is frequently observed in many different human cancers. Despite their importance as therapeutic targets, Sox proteins are difficult to ‘drug’ using structure-based design. However, Sox protein localisation, activity and interaction partners are regulated by a plethora of post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as: phosphorylation, acetylation, sumoylation, methylation, and ubiquitylation. Here we review the various reported post-translational modifications of Sox proteins and their potential functional importance in guiding cell fate processes. The enzymes that regulate these PTMs could be useful targets for anti-cancer drug discovery.