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Abstract. COST -European COoperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research -is the oldest and widest intergovernmental European network for cooperation in research. COST Action 725 (running from 2004 to 2009) aimed at and succeeded in establishing a European data base of phenological observations, classifying the data according to one common system and using the data in scientific peer reviewed papers. COST725 organized many workshops and conferences that helped to bring together not only the European, but also the global, phenological community. One of the highlights of COST725 was the boxed entry "Phenological responses to climate in Europe: the COST725 project" in the AR4 of IPCC in 2007. And last, but not least, although the action ended in April 2009 a follow up will be launched in 2010 under EUMETNET/ECSN.

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Seasonal allergic rhinitis is a widespread disorder in westernized countries. It has a strong negative impact on the patient's health-related quality of life and is accompanied by considerable medical and economic costs. Currently, the socioeconomic interest in prevention is growing. Reducing or avoiding allergen exposure may result in a significant reduction of sensitization and mitigation of allergic complaints, and this reduction is in addition to existing medical prevention strategies. It will require good communication to (potential) patients on the importance and possibilities for reducing the contact with allergenic pollen. Longterm pollen monitoring and forecasts of the flowering period of allergenic plants are important tools in this respect. Reducing the allergenic load may prove an alternative prevention strategy. Pollen sources are heterogeneously distributed throughout the landscape and may be avoided or selectively removed. The use of selection, conventional breeding strategies or genetic modification may reduce the allergenicity of the pollen sources. Strategies that involve genetic modification are, however, likely to raise some public concern and acceptability of these strategies has to be considered.

Throughout 2022, the "triple-dip" La Niña (three consecutive years) showed its hand in a large number of the essential climate variables and metrics that are covered in this chapter. La Niña conditions tend to have a cooling effect on global temperatures in comparison to neutral or El Niño years and impact precipitation patterns around the globe. Upper-level wind patterns at 200 hPa across the globe for 2020-22 showed a striking similarity with the last triple-dip La Niña that occurred in 1998-2000.Yet, despite the cooling effect of the ongoing La Niña, 2022 was still among the six warmest years since global records began in the mid-to-late 1880s, according to six datasets of global surface temperatures. It was also the warmest La Niña year on record, surpassing 2021.Exceptional heatwaves occurred across the globe in 2022, boosted by above-average temperatures that continue their relentless long-term rise. In Europe, the "unweather"-an Old English term for weather so severe that it appears to come from a different climate or world-shattered records across the continent during the summer months, while rivers and reservoirs fell to critically low levels. Meanwhile China experienced its hottest summer on record and at Wuhan, the Yangtze River reached record-low values.The extreme high summer temperatures over Europe resulted in unprecedented melting of glaciers in the Alps, with over 6% of their volume lost in Switzerland this year alone, a record loss. Globally, 2022 was the 35th consecutive year of glacier mass loss and the 14th consecutive year of exceptional loss (more than 500 mm water equivalent). Ice cover on lakes was almost nine days shorter than average, the fourth shortest since 1980; the five shortest ice seasons have all occurred since 2016. The average temperature anomaly for more than 1950 lakes across the Northern Hemisphere was the second highest since the beginning of the record in 1995.Drought conditions were pervasive, occurring across Europe (linked to the extreme summer temperatures), as well as the American West, China, and most of Southern Hemisphere South America. Globally, record-high areas of land experiencing extreme drought (6.2%) were reached in August 2022; overall, 29% of land experienced moderate or worse categories of drought. Low values of terrestrial water storage also occurred in Europe and parts of China (linked to the heatwaves), but La Niña influenced high values in southeastern Australia. Extreme rainfall was observed in southeastern and eastern Australia as well as in Pakistan, which received around three times its normal August monsoon rainfall. However, precipitation amounts for the globe as a whole and over the ocean was much lower than normal, but close to normal over land. Total column water vapor and surface humidity were close to normal over the ocean. Despite 'normal' rainfall amounts over land and lower terrestrial water storage, 2022 saw continued above-average soil moisture values, which are approaching the level of the previous global record in 2011. Lake water l...