Working memory training in older adults: Evidence of transfer and maintenance effects.

Abstract

Few studies have examined working memory (WM) training-related gains and their transfer and maintenance effects in older adults. This present research investigates the efficacy of a verbal WM training program in adults aged 65-75 years, considering specific training gains on a verbal WM (criterion) task as well as transfer effects on measures of visuospatial WM, short-term memory, inhibition, processing speed, and fluid intelligence. Maintenance of training benefits was evaluated at 8-month follow-up. Trained older adults showed higher performance than did controls on the criterion task and maintained this benefit after 8 months. Substantial general transfer effects were found for the trained group, but not for the control one. Transfer maintenance gains were found at follow-up, but only for fluid intelligence and processing speed tasks. The results are discussed in terms of cognitive plasticity in older adults.

The impact of cognitive training and mental stimulation on cognitive and everyday functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

“…Contrary to prior reports (Owen et al, 2010;Papp et al, 2009) Papp et al, 2009;van Muijden et al, 2012;West, 2000), training most reliably produced transfer to tasks within the same cognitive domain, although seven cognitive training studies also reported transfer to untrained cognitive domains (Ball et al, 2002;Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;Cheng et al, 2012;Mozolic et al, 2011;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009). Consistent with research reporting that transfer depends on the type and duration of training (Klingberg, 2010;Owen et al, 2010;van Muijden et al, 2012), interventions using adaptive and repetitive training sessions (Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;Mozolic et al, 2011;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009) Maintenance was reported in nine out of ten cognitive training interventions, lasting between 3 and 6 months.…”

“…Consistent with research reporting that transfer depends on the type and duration of training (Klingberg, 2010;Owen et al, 2010;van Muijden et al, 2012), interventions using adaptive and repetitive training sessions (Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;Mozolic et al, 2011;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009) Maintenance was reported in nine out of ten cognitive training interventions, lasting between 3 and 6 months. These findings are consistent with reports from other reviews that training effects can be preserved for at least a couple of months in both memory and executive domains (Reijnders et al, 2012;Verhaeghen, 2000).…”

“…In individual studies (table 2), significant improvements for intervention groups were reported in seven out of 15 memory outcome measures (Legault et al, 2011;Mahncke et al, 2006;Mozolic et al, 2011;Peretz et al, 2011;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009), 17 out of 29 measures of executive function (Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;Legault et al, 2011;Mahncke et al, 2006;Mozolic et al, 2011;Nouchi et al, 2012;Peretz et al, 2011;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009), and six out of nine composite measures of cognitive function (McDougall et al, 2010). None of the studies included measures of everyday functioning.…”

“…For secondary outcomes, significant improvements were reported for training versus control in three out of four subjective measures of cognitive performance (McDougall et al, 2010;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009). Transfer of training effects were reported in nine out of ten trials: five reported transfer to untrained tasks within the same domain (Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;Mahncke et al, 2006;Nouchi et al, 2012;Peretz et al, 2011) and six to other cognitive domains (Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;McDougall et al, 2010;Mozolic et al, 2011;Richmond et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2009). Four out of five trials that included follow-up assessments reported maintenance of training effects (Borella et al, 2010;Carretti et al, 2012;Mahncke et al, 2006;Smith et al, 2009).…”

On the validity and generality of transfer effects in cognitive training research

“…Recently, positive transfer to performance on untrained tasks has been observed in response to working memory (e.g., Borella, Carretti, Riboldi, & De Beni, 2010;Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides, Perrig, 2008;Klingberg et al, 2005Kuwajima & Sawaguchi, 2010 and executive control training (e.g., Forte et al, 2013;Karbach & Kray, 2009). Together with findings showing that cognitive engagement can result in changes at the neuronal level (Brehmer et al, 2011;Kühn et al, 2012;McNab et al, 2009;Olesen et al, 2004;Wenger et al, 2012), these observations have fostered optimism about the effectiveness of cognitive training procedures.…”