Why not Activated? The Temporary Protection Directive and the Mystery of Temporary Protection in the European Union

Abstract

Following the conflicts in former Yugoslavia, temporary protection was introduced as a crucial element of the European Union's (EU) response to refugee crises. The EU even adopted a directive, the Temporary Protection Directive, regarding its implementation. However, despite several refugee crises, it was not activated. Building on a comprehensive analysis of official documents of European institutions and the available secondary literature, this article investigates the main reasons behind its inactivation. It reveals that the real concerns of EU Member States lay in the measures promoting a balance of efforts to provide temporary protection. In other words, Member States' concerns over responsibility and burden sharing cast a shadow over temporary protection in the EU. The article concludes that the Directive's inactivation indicates a crisis of fundamental principles in European integration.

The Effects of Learning Transfer on Clinical Performances Among Medical Staff: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

“…Yang et al ( 27 ), Tolsgaard et al ( 24 ), Rutherford-Hemming et al ( 25 ), Kulamakan et al ( 26 ), and Anacleto et al ( 30 ) lost a number of research objects to follow-up, and therefore we must assume a high risk of bias. Setting the issue of uncleared blinded participants aside, all but Rutherford-Hemming et al ( 25 ), Genç and Öner ( 28 ), and Lee et al ( 31 ) did not blind participants; thus, their assessment of outcomes must be regarded as questionable.…”

“…Genç and Öner ( 28 ) reported that participants receiving an integrated instructional video performed significantly better on transfer than the procedural-only video. Beattie et al ( 29 ) reported that groups trained in 3D and tested in 3D demonstrated superior training performance and took fewer repetitions to reach proficiency than the group in 2D.…”

“…Compared with nurses in the online self-study module, Rutherford-Hemming et al (25) reported that the simulation group showed higher levels in both short-term and long-term skill performance. Genç and Öner (28) reported that participants receiving an integrated instructional video performed significantly better on transfer than the procedural-only video. Beattie et al (29) reported that groups trained in 3D and tested in 3D demonstrated superior training performance and took fewer repetitions to reach proficiency than the group in 2D.…”

Making EU refugee policy in 2001, applying it in 2022: Directive 2001/55/EC and its use in 2022

“…The first argument is that the application of the Directive needs a majority in the Council of Ministers that is hard to attain (Commission of the European Communities, 2016b; Genç & Şi̇ri̇n Öner, 2019). Member states that face ‘mass influx’ have an incentive to activate the Directive, but other member states can block the application for political reasons.…”

“…For example, Italy and Malta requested to activate the Directive in 2011 when large numbers of refugees from Tunisia and Libya arrived. However, the other member states disputed that this constituted a case of mass influx (Commission of the European Communities, 2016b, p. 13; Genç & Şi̇ri̇n Öner, 2019, p. 8; Gluns & Wessels, 2017, p. 62; Nita, 2013). Similarly, when 50,000 people arrived at the EU's borders with Belarus in 2021, the Commission and some member states did not consider it as a mass influx but framed it as a ‘hybrid attack’ by Belarus (Kienast, 2022).…”