Why is a landscape perspective important in studies of primates?

Abstract

With accelerated deforestation and fragmentation through the tropics, assessing the impact that landscape spatial changes may have on biodiversity is paramount, as this information is required to design and implement effective management and conservation plans. Primates are expected to be particularly dependent on the landscape context; yet, our understanding on this topic is limited as the majority of primate studies are at the local scale, meaning that landscape-scale inferences are not possible. To encourage primatologists to assess the impact of landscape changes on primates, and help future studies on the topic, we describe the meaning of a "landscape perspective" and evaluate important assumptions of using such a methodological approach. We also summarize a number of important, but unanswered, questions that can be addressed using a landscape-scale study design. For example, it is still unclear if habitat loss has larger consistent negative effects on primates than habitat fragmentation per se. Furthermore, interaction effects between habitat area and other landscape effects (e.g., fragmentation) are unknown for primates. We also do not know if primates are affected by synergistic interactions among factors at the landscape scale (e.g., habitat loss and diseases, habitat loss and climate change, hunting, and land-use change), or whether landscape complexity (or landscape heterogeneity) is important for primate conservation. Testing for patterns in the responses of primates to landscape change will facilitate the development of new guidelines and principles for improving primate conservation.

Which is the appropriate scale to assess the impact of landscape spatial configuration on the diet and behavior of spider monkeys?

“…As new studies show, the impact of landscape configuration on species are only evident within certain spatial scales (so-called "scale of effect") [Fahrig, 2013;Jackson & Fahrig, 2012], challenging our ability to identify the spatial extent (or landscape size) at which spatial patterns best predict the response of species and populations [Fahrig, 2013]. In fact, the scale of effect is unknown for most species and variables of interest, limiting thus our understanding of the impact that habitat spatial shifts have on Contract grant sponsor: Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología biodiversity [Fahrig, 2013;Jackson & Fahrig, 2012], and particularly on primates [Arroyo-Rodríguez & Fahrig, 2014].…”

“…This has been the focus of a large number of studies in fragmented landscapes [Ewers & Didham, 2006;Fahrig, 2003;Fischer & Lindenmayer, 2007;Tscharntke et al, 2012;Villard & Metzger, 2014], but it was not until very recently that we have become aware of the fact that the effect of landscape attributes on wild species is dependent on the spatial scale at which these attributes are measured [Arroyo-Rodríguez & Fahrig, 2014;Fahrig, 2013;Jackson & Fahrig, 2012]. As new studies show, the impact of landscape configuration on species are only evident within certain spatial scales (so-called "scale of effect") [Fahrig, 2013;Jackson & Fahrig, 2012], challenging our ability to identify the spatial extent (or landscape size) at which spatial patterns best predict the response of species and populations [Fahrig, 2013].…”

Local vs landscape drivers of primate occupancy in a Brazilian fragmented region

“…Only recently have primatologists focused their attention to primate responses to landscape changes (Arroyo-Rodríguez and Fahrig 2014). Although the amount of habitat is usually related to an increased persistence of primates on fragmented landscapes, other within-patch and matrix type elements also modulate primate distributions within the patch fragments (Benchimol and Peres 2013).…”

Conservation planning for primate communities in rapidly transforming landscapes

“…Habitat loss and fragmentation are two of the main drivers of primate species declines (Rylands et al 2008a;Schwitzer et al 2015). Although these processes occur at the landscape level, most primate research has been focussed on effects of site and patch scales, with little focus on the landscape scale effects (Arroyo-Rodriguez et al 2013a, Arroyo-Rodriguez & Fahrig 2014, Carretero-Pinzón et al 2015. Therefore, the understanding of the effect of site, patch and landscape variables on primate species' responses to habitat loss and fragmentation is still unclear, but necessary for primate conservation.…”

“…However, currently there is a lack of general insights into the effect of habitat loss and fragmentation for primates and whether their effects vary across primate species Vetter et al 2011;Arroyo-Rodriguez et al 2013a, Arroyo-Rodriguez & Fahrig 2014.…”