Which is the optimum parenting for adolescents with low vs. high self-efficacy? Self-concept, psychological maladjustment and academic performance of adolescents in the Spanish context

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to establish which parenting style is associated with optimum outcomes among adolescents of Spanish families considering adolescents with low vs. high self-efficacy. Although classical studies identify the authoritative parenting style (based on warmth and strictness) as the best parental strategy, emerging research seriously questions the benefits of parental strictness. Additionally, the impact of parenting on the adolescent’s psychosocial competence has been studied for years, but less is known about whether it might vary depending on individual characteristics of the adolescent (e.g., self-efficacy). Participants were 1029 Spanish adolescents, 453 males (44%), aged 12-17 years. Families were classified in one of the parenting styles groups (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, or neglectful), and adolescents were grouped by low vs. high self-efficacy. Adolescent psychosocial competence was examined through emotional and academic self-concept, psychological maladjustment (hostility/aggression, negative self-esteem, emotional responsivity, instability, and negative view of the world), and academic performance (grade point average and number of failing grades). Main and interaction effects of parenting style and adolescent self-efficacy were tested. Main effect results indicated that adolescents with low self-efficacy were always associated with the worst psychosocial competence. Consistently, the main effect findings indicated that adolescents from indulgent and authoritative families were associated with better results than those from neglectful and authoritarian families. However, the indulgent parenting style yielded the best results. The impact of parenting might not be the same for adolescents in all cultural contexts. Contrary to findings from classical studies, parental strictness seems to be unnecessary or even detrimental for adolescents with low and high self-efficacy. El objetivo de este estudio es identificar qué estilo parental se asocia con resultados óptimos entre los adolescentes de familias españolas considerando aquellos con baja vs. alta autoeficacia. Los participantes fueron 1029 adolescentes españoles, 453 varones (44%), de 12 a 17 años. Aunque los estudios clásicos identifican el estilo autorizativo (basado en el afecto y la severidad) como la mejor estrategia socializadora, las investigaciones emergentes cuestionan seriamente los beneficios de la severidad parental. Además, el impacto de la socialización parental en la competencia psicosocial del adolescente se ha estudiado durante años, pero se sabe menos sobre si podría variar en función de las características individuales del adolescente (e.g., la autoeficacia). Las familias fueron clasificadas por estilo parental (autorizativo, autoritario, indulgente o negligente), y los adolescentes por baja vs. alta autoeficacia. La competencia psicosocial se examinó a través del autoconcepto emocional y académico, el desajuste psicológico (hostilidad/agresión, autoestima negativa, irresponsividad emocional, inestabilidad emocional y visión negativa del mundo) y el rendimiento académico (nota media y número de cursos repetidos). Se comprobaron los efectos principales y de interacción de estilo parental y autoeficacia. Los resultados de los efectos principales indicaron que los adolescentes con baja autoeficacia presentaban siempre la peor competencia psicosocial. También que los adolescentes de familias indulgentes y autorizativas presentaron mejores resultados que los de familias negligentes y autoritarias. Sin embargo, el estilo parental indulgente se asoció a los mejores resultados. El impacto de la socialización parental podría no ser igual en todos los contextos culturales. Frente a los resultados de los estudios clásicos, la severidad parental parece ser innecesaria o incluso perjudicial para los adolescentes con baja y alta autoeficacia.

Early Family Experiences, Drug Use, and Psychosocial Adjustment across the Life Span: Is Parental Strictness Always a Protective Factor?

“…Externalizing problems during adolescence and behavioral and psychological problems were greater among males on all indicators, except in nervousness. Also age-related differences were in line with some previous studies ( Alcaide et al, 2023 ; Garcia, Fuentes et al, 2020 ; Reyes et al, 2023 ). Adolescents reported some negative scores, for example, in self-esteem, aggression and nervousness.…”

“…By contrast, the benefits of the indulgent style have been identified in some previous emergent research mainly conducted in Europe and Latin America. For example, the indulgent parenting was related to equal or even more optimal scores in studies conducted in Spain ( Garcia & Gracia, 2009 , 2010; Reyes et al, 2023 ), Portugal ( Rodrigues et al, 2013 ; Martinez et al, 2020 ), Germany ( Garcia et al, 2019 ), Sweden, United Kingdom, Slovenia, the Czech Republic ( Calafat et al, 2014 ), Norway ( Lund & Scheffels, 2019 ), Brazil (Martinez & Garcia, 2008; Martinez et al, 2020 ), or more recently United States ( Garcia et al, 2019 ; Milevsky, 2022 ). Additionally, similar results from South Africa revealed the benefits of parental warmth regardless of strictness ( Dakers & Guse, 2020 ).…”

“…Additionally, some recent research from studies mostly conducted in European and Latin American countries indicate that the indulgent parenting is related to equal or even more optimal scores compared to the authoritative parenting, whereas authoritarian and neglectful parenting tend to be related to the lowest optimal scores ( Alcaide et al, 2023 ; Calafat et al, 2014 ; Garcia et al, 2019 ; Martinez et al, 2020 ; Perez-Gramaje et al, 2020 ; Reyes et al, 2023 ). Overall, parental warmth might offer broad benefits ( Lila et al, 2007 ; Martinez-Escudero et al, 2023 ), while parental strictness seems to be unnecessary or even detrimental ( Climent-Galarza et al, 2022 ; Martinez et al, 2019 ).…”

The association between authoritarian parenting style and peer interactions among Chinese children aged 3–6: an analysis of heterogeneity effects

“…Children raised under authoritarian parenting tend to experience social impairments, lack social initiative, have difficulty expressing themselves, struggle to form close friendships, and often face rejection by their peers. Recent research conducted in Europe within middle-class family contexts has also established a correlation between the authoritarian parenting style and adverse consequences ( Alcaide et al, 2023 ; Reyes et al, 2023 ). As a result, children’s behavior in peer interactions is rooted in the parenting styles they experience.…”

Parent-child attachment mediates the association between parental conflict perceptions and suicide intention: a cross-sectional survey among middle school students in China

“…Similar results were obtained in Europe ( 26 , 27 ). Even more studies have further shown that relationships between parents and adolescent children based on positive responses protect them from problems ( 18 , 28 ). Moreover, for adolescents, some studies have shown that, high-quality parent-child attachment will contribute to high social adaptability and cultivate positive psychological qualities, in turn, it reduces various negative emotions and bad behaviors including suicide ( 29 ).…”