Where Do People Drown? Encoding the Third Component of the 4W Model

Under What Circumstances Do People Drown? Encoding the Fourth Component of the 4W Model

“…To address these questions, two studies were undertaken to investigate under what circumstances people are more likely to drown. The methodology (participants, apparatus, and procedures) of both studies was consistent with previously-published studies (e.g., Avramidis, Butterly, & Llewellyn, 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c). …”

“…As previously-reported (Avramidis et al, 2009(Avramidis et al, , 2009a(Avramidis et al, , 2009b(Avramidis et al, , 2009c, the authors observed the videos on standard equipment and software (QSR, 2002) to perform appropriate qualitative analyses. Because it was not always clear when each narrative started and ended, we had to define the length of each video narrative using reliable and objective measures during two independent observations.…”

“…According to the 4W model, a drowning incident can occur due to causes that can be categorized into four discrete interrelated factors: rescuer characteristics, casualty characteristics, and location and temporal/environmental circumstances (Avramidis, Butterly & Llewellyn, 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c. The following paragraphs discuss the fourth component of the 4W model of drowning, or in other words, the circumstances under which a drowning incident might occur (e.g., the interrelationship between casualty, rescuer, and equipment involved in the aquatic activity, the risk as a physical demand of aquatic activity, the presence Stathis Avramidis and Ronald Butterly are with Leeds Metropolitan University, Faculty of Sport and Education in Leeds, UK.…”

Swimming in New Waters: Profiling K-12 Aquatic Physical Activity in Florida as a Viable Lifesaving Force in Physical Education

“…Results clearly revealed that physical educators' attitudes regarding the barriers attributed to the lack of APA in physical education programs were also consistent with the literature including issues such as scheduling conflict, lack of certification, and training, lack of facilities (refer to Table 4). Moreover, literature suggested that culture plays a role in one's use of and participation in APA, thus limiting exposure to APA through the allocation of resources and decision-making when it comes to participation in aquatic venues (Avramidis, Butterly, Llewellyn, 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2009cMartin & Witman, 2010). Cardon, Verstraete, Dirk, and Bourdeaudhuij (2004) compared the physical activity levels of 8-12-year-old students during swimming and nonswimming elementary physical education classes.…”

“…Consistent with literature on physical activity patterns (Bgeginski, Finkelstein, Alberton, Tartaruga, & Kruel, 2009;Kruel, Peyer-Tartaruga, Alberton, Muller, & Petkowizc, 2009;Peyre-Tartaruga, Tartaruga, Coertjens, Black, Oliveira & Kruel, 2009), aquatics and minority populations (Applebee, 1991;Avramidis et al, 2009a;Banks & Banks, 1989;Beale et al, 2002;Eisenhart & Cutts-Dougherty, 1991;Irwin, Irwin, Ryan, & Drayer, 2009;Jackson, 1991;Moran, 2009;Pendelton, 1975;Waller & Norwood, 2009;Wieser, 1995), physical environment (e.g., access to swimming pools), and a combination of social-cultural issues (e.g., valuing swimming skills and choosing water-related activities when making recreational choices) may be the primary factors contributing to the heritage and ethnic differences in drowning rates due to the lack of exposure to APA. (Avramidis et al, 2007(Avramidis et al, , 2009a(Avramidis et al, , 2009b(Avramidis et al, , 2009cMartin & Witman, 2010;Moran, 2009).…”