Water Chlorination: Essential Process or Cancer Hazard?

Bull, Richard J.; Birnbaum, Linda S.; Cantor, Kenneth P.; Rose, Joan B.; Butterworth, Byron E.; Pegram, Rex A.; TUOMISTO, JUOKO

doi:10.1093/toxsci/28.2.155

Cited by 59 publications

(51 citation statements)

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“…The electrogeneration of chlorine process is safe, environmentally friendly, easily operated, and known to inactivate a wide range of micro-organisms ranging from bacteria to viruses and algae, the primary function of a disinfectant [2,3]. Chlorine remains a predominant method for disinfecting drinking water as it provides both the primary and secondary functions despite the disadvantages of unfavorable taste and odor and the generation of potentially toxic chlorinated organic chlorination by-products [4][5][6]. Alternative processes developed to overcome these disadvantages generally do not meet the secondary function of providing a residual protection in the distribution system [3].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A novel perforated electrode flow through cell design for chlorine generation

et al. 2010

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Chlorination remains a predominant method for disinfecting drinking water. Electrogeneration of chlorine has the potential to become the favoured method of chlorine production if costs can be lowered and chlorine generation efficiencies can be improved. A novel perforated electrode flow through (PEFT) cell design has been developed to address these problems. The electrodes were made from low-cost graphite sheets and stainless steel mesh and separated by a non-conducting fabric membrane. This electrode configuration allows reduction of electrode separation to 0.1 mm or less, minimizing cell resistance and increasing electrical efficiency. The new PEFT configuration generates hypochlorite from a 0.5 mol L -1 brine at a current efficiency of better than 60%. As an inline in situ device, it produces chlorine concentrations known to be sufficient to disinfect water, from chloride concentrations as low as 0.004 mol L -1 (available in most natural waters) by a single pass of the water through the cell operating at 11 V. The possibility of a portable device operated by a 12-V battery is indicated.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A novel perforated electrode flow through cell design for chlorine generation

et al. 2010

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“…Due to its strong oxidizing nature O 3 is often used in disinfection processes at wastewater treatment facilities. It has relevance in removing unwanted odours, wood pulp bleaching and more recently in healthcare [1][2][3][4][5][6]. For practical uses, O 3 must be produced in an efficient and environmentally friendly manner, which to date has proven to be the greatest challenge.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

New insights into electrocatalytic ozone generation via splitting of water over PbO2 electrode: A DFT study

Gibson

Morgan

et al. 2016

Chemical Physics Letters

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“…Trihalomethanes (THMs) are by-products formed when chlorine is used to disinfect drinking water [1,2]. Trichloromethane (TCM) is most often the predominant THM formed during chlorine disinfection; however, the brominated methanes, bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and tribromomethane (TBM) may be formed at levels comparable to or exceeding that of chloroform depending on the concentration of bromine in the water [3].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Geter¹,

Chang²,

Hanley³

et al. 2004

J Carcinog

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BackgroundEpidemiological studies have linked the consumption of chlorinated surface waters to an increased risk of two major causes of human mortality, colorectal and bladder cancer. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are by-products formed when chlorine is used to disinfect drinking water. The purpose of this study was to examine the ability of the THMs, trichloromethane (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and tribromomethane (TBM), to induce DNA strand breaks (SB) in (1) CCRF-CEM human lymphoblastic leukemia cells, (2) primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) exposed in vitro, and (3) rats exposed by gavage or drinking water.MethodsDNA SB were measured by the DNA alkaline unwinding assay (DAUA). CCRF-CEM cells were exposed to individual THMs for 2 hr. Half of the cells were immediately analyzed for DNA SB and half were transferred into fresh culture medium and incubated for an additional 22 hr before testing for DNA SB. PRH were exposed to individual THMs for 4 hr then assayed for DNA SB. F344/N rats were exposed to individual THMs for 4 hr, 2 weeks, and to BDCM for 5 wk then tested for DNA SB.ResultsCCRF-CEM cells exposed to 5- or 10-mM brominated THMs for 2 hr produced DNA SB. The order of activity was TBM>DBCM>BDCM; TCM was inactive. Following a 22-hr recovery period, all groups had fewer SB except 10-mM DBCM and 1-mM TBM. CCRF-CEM cells were found to be positive for the GSTT1-1 gene, however no activity was detected. No DNA SB, unassociated with cytotoxicity, were observed in PRH or F344/N rats exposed to individual THMs.ConclusionCCRF-CEM cells exposed to the brominated THMs at 5 or 10 mM for 2 hr showed a significant increase in DNA SB when compared to control cells. Additionally, CCRF-CEM cells exposed to DBCM and TBM appeared to have compromised DNA repair capacity as demonstrated by an increased amount of DNA SB at 22 hr following exposure. CCRF-CEM cells were found to be positive for the GSTT1-1 gene, however no activity was detected. No DNA SB were observed in PRH or F344/N rats exposed to individual THMs.

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Water Chlorination: Essential Process or Cancer Hazard?

Cited by 59 publications

References 0 publications

A novel perforated electrode flow through cell design for chlorine generation

A novel perforated electrode flow through cell design for chlorine generation

New insights into electrocatalytic ozone generation via splitting of water over PbO2 electrode: A DFT study

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