Water

Regulations to protect groundwater resources during unconventional oil and gas extraction using fracking

“…Limited human and financial resources capacity also curtails enforcement and compliance monitoring (Esterhuyse, de Lange, et al, 2016;Kijko, Kahle, Smit, Esterhuyse, & Glazewski, 2016). Groundwater resources are especially important in South Africa (Hobbs et al, 2016;Winter, 2018). A recent strategic environmental assessment for shale gas development in the Karoo region of South Africa found that no additional surface water or groundwater resources are available for UOG extraction, and that companies must consider importing seawater for their fracking operations (Hobbs et al, 2016).…”

“…Groundwater resources are especially important in South Africa (Hobbs et al, 2016;Winter, 2018). A recent strategic environmental assessment for shale gas development in the Karoo region of South Africa found that no additional surface water or groundwater resources are available for UOG extraction, and that companies must consider importing seawater for their fracking operations (Hobbs et al, 2016). This highlights the importance of developing a proper regulatory framework to protect groundwater resources in South Africa during UOG extraction (Esterhuyse, 2017;Esterhuyse, Kemp, & Redelinghuys, 2013;Esterhuyse, Redelinghuys, & Kemp, 2016).…”

“…Best available technologies include using the most up-to-date well casing and cementing products and procedures to minimize groundwater contamination and ensure well integrity, and monitoring for well integrity (National Academies Press, 2018). Best practices to protect groundwater can include changing to more environmentally benign fracking fluids (Hobbs et al, 2016), setting surface casings (which act as a protective shield between aquifers and the fracking well) at greater depths, cementing the surface casing and intermediate casings to the surface and doing pressure testing on the surface casing to check if it properly isolates the fracking well from aquifers (Hobbs et al, 2016). BATP options for solid waste and wastewater management include developing better wastewater treatments to reduce the effect on water quality after discharge, developing techniques to ensure optimal wastewater reuse, and developing next-generation technology that can predict, prevent, and help to mitigate accidents during UOG extraction (Paranhos, Kozak, Boyd, Paranhos, & Kozak, 2017).…”

“…BATP options for solid waste and wastewater management include developing better wastewater treatments to reduce the effect on water quality after discharge, developing techniques to ensure optimal wastewater reuse, and developing next-generation technology that can predict, prevent, and help to mitigate accidents during UOG extraction (Paranhos, Kozak, Boyd, Paranhos, & Kozak, 2017). Technology such as remote-controlled downhole systems of permanent monitors, packers and sealing elements ("intelligent completion") can help to monitor wastewater management (Hobbs et al, 2016). In the EU, impermeable site lining ("bunding") must be installed to limit the migration of wastewater to aquifers, in order for planning permission to be granted (Kotsakis, 2012).…”

“…Integrity monitoring of abandoned wells can then be performed by pressure testing the casing string, performing cement bond logs to evaluate the integrity of the cement work in the well, testing annular pressures in the casing, acoustic monitoring, and monitoring for gas leaks. The risk of leakage over the long term means that a monitoring timeframe of 50 years after well decommissioning may be necessary (Hobbs et al, 2016;Huddlestone-Holmes et al, 2018). This raises the question of who will take the responsibility for performing such a long-term monitoring and carrying the associated costs.…”