Vitamin K Contribution to DNA Damage—Advantage or Disadvantage? A Human Health Response

Abstract

Vitamin K is the common name for a group of compounds recognized as essential for blood clotting. The group comprises phylloquinone (K1)—a 2-methyl-3-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone; menaquinone (K2, MK)—a group of compounds with an unsaturated side chain in position 3 of a different number of isoprene units and a 1,4-naphthoquinone group and menadione (K3, MD)—a group of synthetic, water-soluble compounds 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone. However, recent epidemiological studies suggest that vitamin K has various benefits that go beyond blood coagulation processes. A dietary intake of K1 is inversely associated with the risk of pancreatic cancer, K2 has the potential to induce a differentiation in leukemia cells or apoptosis of various types of cancer cells, and K3 has a documented anti-cancer effect. A healthy diet rich in fruit and vegetables ensures an optimal supply of K1 and K2, though consumers often prefer supplements. Interestingly, the synthetic form of vitamin K—menadione—appears in the cell during the metabolism of phylloquinone and is a precursor of MK-4, a form of vitamin K2 inaccessible in food. With this in mind, the purpose of this review is to emphasize the importance of vitamin K as a micronutrient, which not only has a beneficial effect on blood clotting and the skeleton, but also reduces the risk of cancer and other pro-inflammatory diseases. A proper diet should be a basic and common preventive procedure, resulting in a healthier society and reduced burden on healthcare systems.

Links between Vitamin K, Ferroptosis and SARS-CoV-2 Infection

“…Twelve different MK characters (MK-4 to MK-15) have been described so far. In humans, there is only short-chain MK-4, which is a product of the systemic conversion of vitamin K 1 , and four forms of MK-7 to MK-10, products of the synthesis of bacteria [ 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 ]. The chemical structures of the known forms of vitamin K are shown in Figure 3 .…”

“…In terms of osteoprotection, vitamin K participates in the activation of the steroid and xenobiotics receptor (SRX) and acts as a regulator of the transcription of osteoblast marker genes and extracellular matrix genes [ 109 , 126 ]. Vitamin K deficiency increases the risk of chronic inflammations [ 112 ]. Ferroptosis has been the focus of attention in the search for methods of cancer treatment.…”

The Role of NQO1 in Ovarian Cancer

“…Vitamin K3, also known as menadione, is a synthetic derivative of vitamin K with high biological activity that can also be produced in the body through metabolic conversion of vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) [76,77].…”

Antibacterial activity of menadione alone and in combination with oxacillin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and its impact on biofilms

“…Menadione is a quinone compound that, like other quinones, can undergo one or two-electron reduction, resulting in the formation of semiquinone. However, semiquinones are highly unstable substances and rapidly react with oxygen, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) [23]. It is believed that one of the main cytotoxic mechanisms of menadione is oxidative damage induced by ROS [22,24].…”

“…It is believed that one of the main cytotoxic mechanisms of menadione is oxidative damage induced by ROS [22,24]. Excessive production of ROS can cause severe oxidative stress within cells, in turn causing damage to cellular macromolecules, including lipids, proteins, and DNA [23,25,26].…”