Virus as a Nanocarrier for Drug Delivery Redefining Medical Therapeutics - A Status Report

Abstract

: Over the last two decades, drug delivery systems have evolved at a tremendous rate. Synthetic nanoparticles have played an important role in the design of vaccine and their delivery as many of them have shown improved safety and efficacy over conventional formulations. Nanocarriers formulated by natural, biological building blocks have become an important tool in the field biomedicine. A successful nanocarrier must have certain properties like evading the host immune system, target specificity, cellular entry, escape from endosomes, and ability to release material into the cytoplasm. Some or all of these functions can be performed by viruses making them a suitable candidate for naturally occurring nanocarriers. Moreover, viruses can be made non-infectious and non-replicative without compromising their ability to penetrate cells thus making them useful for a vast spectrum of applications. Currently, various carrier molecules are under different stages of development to become bio-nano capsules. This review covers the advances made in the field of viruses as potential nanocarriers and discusses the related technologies and strategies to target specific cells by using virus inspired nanocarriers. In future, these virus-based nano-formulations will be able to provide solutions towards pressing and emerging infectious diseases.

Nanoadjuvants: Promising Bioinspired and Biomimetic Approaches in Vaccine Innovation

“…Keeping the growing demand particularly in medical applications and their universal value in view, nanoadjuvants offer tremendous prospects in biobusiness in international trade and commerce. − In light of this, it is essential to discuss and analyze the strengths and opportunities (as the positive factors), and weaknesses and threats (as the negative factors) of the commercial implications of nanoadjuvant-based vaccine development with the former as either a vaccine carrier or as a performance elicitor. Thus, a schematic presentation of the SWOT analysis is provided in Figure for better and comprehensive understanding for readers.…”

Nanoparticle-Based Adjuvants and Delivery Systems for Modern Vaccines

“…Nevertheless, today, it is known that innate immune cells, especially dendritic cells (DCs), which are the major antigen-presenting cells (APCs), can sense pathogen- and damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMP and DAMP, respectively) by different receptors (such as TLR, NOD- and RIG-like receptors). Many of these molecules, which could be part of adjuvants or components released from injured or dying cells on the site of the vaccine injection, induce inflammation, activate DCs and induce adaptive immunity mediated by vaccine antigen-specific T and B lymphocytes [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Briefly, during the recognition of vaccine antigens presented on DCs by the CD4+ T helper (Th) cell, DC-derived cytokines and costimulatory molecules on their cell surface influence Th cell differentiation towards three major subsets called Th1, Th2 and Th17 [ 10 ].…”

“…Th17 cells play a critical role in host defense against a variety of bacteria and fungi that can survive outside cells, primarily by producing the IL-17 cytokine, but data regarding Th17-inducing adjuvants are still scarce. Having all of this in mind, a major goal of the next-generation vaccines is the selective use of adjuvants and delivery systems to enhance optimal immune responses in humans [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ].…”

“…The use of nanocarriers originated from natural sources that have specific properties such as the ability to escape host immune response and to enter the host cell in order to deliver specific genetic material, has become an important tool in the vaccine field [ 14 ]. Good example of naturaly originated nanocarriers that may have these characteristics are viruses that are an important class of naturally occurring bioinspired nanosystems for vaccine delivery [ 114 ].…”

Research Progress of Bioinspired Nanostructured Systems for the Treatment of Ocular Disorders

“…Virus nanocarriers isolated from bacteria and plant are not only biocompatible and biodegradable, but also non-infectious and harmless to humans. An analysis of published data by Ojha et al [ 31 ] showed that some plant virus nanocarriers including Cowpea Mosaic Virus (CPMV), Red Clover Necrotic Mosaic Virus (RCNMV), and Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) have been used to specifically deliver the anticancer drugs and bioimaging agents to tumors. Velázquez et al [ 32 ] reported for the first time that the turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), naturally infecting cruciferous plants but not humans, can be functionalized by epigallocatechin gallate and showed a significant capacity of tumor homing and cell internalization compared with free epigallocatechin gallate.…”