Virtual pollination trade uncovers global dependence on biodiversity of developing countries

Abstract

Nations’ food consumption patterns are increasingly globalized and trade dependent. Natural resources used for agriculture (e.g., water, pollinators) are hence being virtually exchanged across countries. Inspired by the virtual water concept, we, herein, propose the concept of virtual biotic pollination flow as an indicator of countries’ mutual dependence on biodiversity-based ecosystem services and provide an online tool to visualize trade flow. Using information on 55 pollinator-dependent crop markets (2001–2015), we show that countries with higher development level demand high levels of biodiversity-based services to sustain their consumption patterns. Such patterns are supported by importation of virtual biotic pollination (up to 40% of national imports of pollinator-dependent crops) from developing countries, stimulating cropland expansion. Quantifying virtual pollination flow can help develop new global socioeconomic policies to meet the interconnected challenges of biodiversity loss, ecosystem health, and social justice.

Agroecological Strategies to Safeguard Insect Pollinators in Biodiversity Hotspots: Chile as a Case Study

“…The reason for this emphasis is the fact that WBHs often overlap with prime agriculture zones [67]. Therefore, the continuity of food supply may be at stake, considering that biodiversity is a key contributing factor to world agricultural production [4]. Ironically, WBHs' unique assembly of species and ecosystem services are being jeopardized by IA practices and its associated globalized market schemes [6,68,69].…”

“…The Neotropical region includes several of these areas, hosting an outstanding diversity and richness of native pollinators [9]. This area of the planet produces a considerable portion of food crops by IA and it has been regarded as the zone which has suffered one of the greatest declines in biodiversity and ecosystem services [4,80]. Chile includes in its territory almost an entire hotspot, named the "Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests".…”

“…It has been estimated the number of native bee species in the Neotropical Region would be above 15,100, stressing that current knowledge on actual species richness would represent roughly one third of this total [9]. This is worrisome considering the high rates of biodiversity and ecosystem services losses reported for this region of the world [80], largely composed of WBHs focused on agriculture exports [4]. This may imply the potential extinction of many pollinators before even their description, "Centinelan Extinction" [282], and its neglect represents a threat to both local and global food security [283].…”

“…This needs to change. AE's local biodiversity "internal inputs" such as native pollination services [73] cannot be labeled as commodities (e.g., "natural capital" [73]), as its "exchange" threatens the sustainability of food production and commerce 4 . This is likely currently happening in a "Centinelan" pollination consumption (not a "trade"), as native bees cannot be replaced or recovered once species go extinct.…”

“…Yet these welcomed apparent enhancements in production are also partly responsible for the ongoing massive release of greenhouse gases, the unsustainable use of water and land resources [3], and the contamination of soil as well as both surface and underground water reservoirs by fertilizers and pesticides. Under the current market model this intensive agriculture production is widely requested by "countries with higher developmental level" [4], driving unprecedented amounts of food waste [5]. IA functions at the expense of ever-increasing socio-ecological crises and has been recognized among the main drivers of irreparable biodiversity losses, especially in areas chiefly focused on producing and exporting food crops (i.e., "developing countries") [6][7][8][9].…”