Vehicle-to-Grid Market Readiness in Europe with a Special Focus on Germany

Abstract

Vehicle-to-grid means that electric vehicles are charged when electricity is plentiful and discharged when it is scarce. New battery-electric vehicles have an energy capacity above 60 kWh installed and practically always have a DC connector. With over 1 million of such vehicles in Germany alone already, the flexibility potential to balance out fluctuating renewable generation or compensate for grid constraints is large. While many actors are working to enable this market, the readiness of hardware and regulations as well as the potential volume are hard to grasp. This paper provides an overview of these factors for Europe with a special focus on Germany. We find that some countries started to implement regulatory frameworks but none are ready yet. Issues include taxation, the fulfillment of grid codes, and the lack of smart meters. In terms of vehicles, 25 manufacturers with bidirectional charging ability were identified, but most vehicles were only used in field tests or operate in island mode. In terms of charging infrastructure, the picture is brighter with at least 20 manufacturers that offer DC bidirectional charging stations and 2 offering an AC variant.

Feasibility and Challenges for Vehicle-to-Grid in Electricity Market: A Review

“…At present, the research on the use of V2G technology as black start power sources is still in the theoretical stage. Many researches have mentioned the idea of V2G technology participation in black start [26,77,78], but there is no in-depth feasibility exploration observed yet. J. Lee argued in [79] that battery-electric buses can be used as black start power sources for microgrids, but did not mention the feasibility of being used as black start power sources for large power grids.…”

Overview of Sustainable Mobility: The Role of Electric Vehicles in Energy Communities

“…Various countries, energy suppliers, and network operators employ different regulatory approaches. Studies conducted by the EU indicate that the absence of clear regulations could potentially delay investments by up to several years [176,177].…”

“…The installation of bidirectional charging equipment comes with a high price tag, leading many EV owners to forgo it due to economic concerns. According to research, bidirectional systems can cost anywhere from USD 2000 to 5000 more than conventional charging systems [176][177][178][179][180].…”

Consideration of round-trip electric car-sharing in residential energy system modeling

“…In [10], optimal fleet deployment also includes a vehicle-togrid capability but with minimal details on the connected grid. Furthermore, vehicle to grid capabilities in distribution grids might be a solution for the future, but the implementations are quite limited in present distribution grids [11]. On the contrary, if a sufficiently large percentage of residential mobility demand is electrified, this might already provide adequate grid decongestion and opportunities for peak-shaving measures [2].…”