“…Participation was evaluated from (i) data collected from ARS system, which provides the number of students participating in class meetings by answering questions; (ii) students’ perceptions of the usefulness of ARS collected from an end‐of‐semester students’ survey, which is a key predictor of the belief that the use of a new technology enhances learning achievement (Mohr et al ., ); and (iii) observations and reflection regarding students’ participation during class meetings, which according to Bennet () is also an appropriate method to evaluate participation. - Concentration . Concentration in lectures is defined as students staying alert focusing their attention to the topics covered in the lecture (Eng et al ., ). Concentration was evaluated from (i) results of lecture MCQs related to the lecture content collected from the ARS system, which is appropriate for measuring a basic level of understanding and therefore concentration (Caldwell, ); (ii) students’ perception of the effect of PLM and ARS on their concentration in the lecture, collected from the students’ survey, which are deemed to be consistent with the actual effect of the elements of the innovation (Kember, ; Richardson, 2005b); and (iii) observation of students’ concentration by the lecturer‐researcher's perception of the level of attention of students while explaining the topics of the lecture, which according to Bennet () is an appropriate measure of in‐class concentration because the lecturer is in a privileged position to assess the level of concentration of students in the lecture.
- Effort .
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