Update on Extracellular Vesicle-Based Vaccines and Therapeutics to Combat COVID-19

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a deep impact on people worldwide since late 2019 when SARS-CoV-2 was first identified in Wuhan, China. In addition to its effect on public health, it has affected humans in various aspects of life, including social, economic, cultural, and political. It is also true that researchers have made vigorous efforts to overcome COVID-19 throughout the world, but they still have a long way to go. Accordingly, innumerable therapeutics and vaccine candidates have been studied for their efficacies and have been tried clinically in a very short span of time. For example, the versatility of extracellular vesicles, which are membrane-bound particles released from all types of cells, have recently been highlighted in terms of their effectiveness, biocompatibility, and safety in the fight against COVID-19. Thus, here, we tried to explain the use of extracellular vesicles as therapeutics and for the development of vaccines against COVID-19. Along with the mechanisms and a comprehensive background of their application in trapping the coronavirus or controlling the cytokine storm, we also discuss the obstacles to the clinical use of extracellular vesicles and how these could be resolved in the future.

Cell‐Based Biomaterials for Coronavirus Disease 2019 Prevention and Therapy

“…[223] Fifth, there is a very limited selection of noncancerous human cell lines and primary cells, and the immunological rejection should be also considered. [83,224] Sixth, a complex and lengthy regulatory approval process limits their practical applications to some extent. To settle these challenges, it is necessary to comprehensively and deeply understand the heterogeneity of cell-based biomaterials and the mechanisms of their biogenesis and action, so as to create superior production and transportation technologies to improve product yields and quality.…”

“…Exosomes originate from the endocytosis of the cellular membrane, resulting in the formation of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) by the inward invagination of the late endosomal membrane with the endosomal sorting complex. [83] They are released when MVBs fuse with the plasma membrane. [84,85] Microvesicles are defined as large vesicles formed by the outward protrusion of the plasma membrane.…”

“…[84,85] Microvesicles are defined as large vesicles formed by the outward protrusion of the plasma membrane. [83,86] Apoptotic bodies, the largest among EVs, originate from the protrusion and blebbing of the membranes of dying cells. [87] Structurally, the membranes of EVs maintain some of the key membrane protein features of origin cells, and they carry a variety of proteins and nucleic acids in the lumen.…”

Extracellular Vesicles: The Invisible Heroes and Villains of COVID‐19 Central Neuropathology

“…Recent studies have highlighted EVs‐based vaccines' efficacy, biocompatibility, and safety against COVID‐19. [ 209 ] The study proved the effectiveness of exosomes for inhalation and showed superior immunological advantages, allowing for faster clearance of the virus. [ 210 ] In fact, EV‐ACE2 was 60‐ to 80‐fold more effective in preventing pseudotyped and true SARS‐CoV‐2 infections compared to vesicle‐free recombinant human ACE2 (rhACE2).…”

Study of the Molecular Mechanisms of the Therapeutic Properties of Extracellular Vesicles

“…Mustajab et al provided an informative overview of the potential of EVs as tools for the treatment of COVID-19 [ 26 ]. The authors discuss the various ways in which EVs could be used in the development of vaccines and therapeutics, including their potential for delivering antigens and drugs directly to target cells.…”