“…In the field of geotechnical engineering, the finite element limit analysis (FELA), which combines the plastic limit theorem with the finite element method (FEM), has been proven to be a robust approach for assessing the stability of geotechnical structures, such as soil slopes, retaining walls, foundations, tunnels, and so on. Since originally proposed by Sloan (1988Sloan ( , 1989 and Sloan and Kleeman (1995), both upper bound finite element method (UBFEM) and lower bound finite element method (LBFEM) have been received significant attention in the simulation of geotechnical problems (Andersen et al, 1998(Andersen et al, , 2000Lyamin and Sloan, 2002;Krabbenhoft and Damkilde, 2003;Tin-Loi and Ngo, 2003;Krabbenhøft et al, 2007;Makrodimopoulos and Martin, 2007;Martin, 2011;Sloan, 2013;Qian et al, 2015;Yang et al, 2016Yang et al, , 2017Lim et al, 2017;Xiao et al, 2018;Zhang et al, 2019b;Ukritchon and Keawsawasvong, 2018, 2020aUkritchon et al, 2020;Graine et al, 2021;Keawsawasvong and Ukritchon, 2019.…”