UAS-Based Archaeological Remote Sensing: Review, Meta-Analysis and State-of-the-Art

Abstract

Over the last decade, we have witnessed momentous technological developments in unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) and in lightweight sensors operating at various wavelengths, at and beyond the visible spectrum, which can be integrated with unmanned aerial platforms. These innovations have made feasible close-range and high-resolution remote sensing for numerous archaeological applications, including documentation, prospection, and monitoring bridging the gap between satellite, high-altitude airborne, and terrestrial sensing of historical sites and landscapes. In this article, we track the progress made so far, by systematically reviewing the literature relevant to the combined use of UAS platforms with visible, infrared, multi-spectral, hyper-spectral, laser, and radar sensors to reveal archaeological features otherwise invisible to archaeologists with applied non-destructive techniques. We review, specific applications and their global distribution, as well as commonly used platforms, sensors, and data-processing workflows. Furthermore, we identify the contemporary state-of-the-art and discuss the challenges that have already been overcome, and those that have not, to propose suggestions for future research.

Following the Roman Army between the Southern Foothills of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Northern Plains of Castile and León (North of Spain): Archaeological Applications of Remote Sensing and Geospatial Tools

“…UAV-based aerial data acquisition is another recent development. However, it favours the in-depth documentation of single sites, not being yet suitable for exploratory research programmes over large areas [46][47][48]90].…”

“…The availability of several open-access datasets (aerial photography, satellite imagery, and airborne LiDAR-Light Detection and Ranging) enable a different, but complementary, approach to those based on the extensive use of oblique aerial photography [19,45]. The use of UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) for aerial data acquisition [46][47][48] and GIS for spatial analysis [49][50][51] were also incorporated to our landscape archaeology approach.…”

Sensors and Measurements for Unmanned Systems: An Overview

“…Hyperspectral cameras are not commonly used in agriculture applications, since they require integration with a greater number of other devices, including a battery, a frame grabber, and a data storage device, in order to operate suitably on UAV platforms, as well as also being heavy and large [ 42 ]. However, hyperspectral sensors are increasingly the subject of miniaturization, which will increase the number of applications that can benefit from their use [ 43 ]. The fluctuating environmental conditions in the air and/or the presence of different objects emitting or reflecting thermal infrared radiation can degrade the reliability of the thermal camera measurements, requiring periodic calibration [ 42 ].…”

“…LiDAR sensors are used in archaeology applications for providing measurements related to the effects that archaeological remains buried close to the surface have on the topography of a landscape [ 43 ]. They can provide detailed digital terrain and surface models covering vast landscapes [ 43 ].…”

“…Spectral sensors provide, in the archaeological field, measurements allowing the detection of landscape matrix contrast, which is useful for providing interpretations of archaeological significance [ 43 ].…”