Troubles in Tuva: Patterns of perimortem trauma in a nomadic community from Southern Siberia (second to fourth c.CE)

Abstract

Objectives: Warfare is assumed to be one of the defining cultural characteristics of steppe nomads in Eastern Eurasia. For the first-centuries CE, a period of political turmoil in Northern China and Southern Siberia, relatively few data are, however, available about the degree and variability of violence in these communities. Here, we provide new data on violence among steppe nomads during the firstcenturies CE by analyzing the type, anatomical distribution, and demographic distribution of perimortem trauma at Tunnug1 (Tuva, Southern Siberia-second to fourth c. CE). Materials and Methods: Perimortem traumas were assessed on 87 individuals representing both sexes and different age classes. The timing of the lesions was assessed based on morphological criteria, including the absence and presence of bone reactive processes and the relative plasticity of the bone at the moment of impact. The distribution by age, sex, and anatomical location of trauma was analyzed by means of logistic models, Fisher's exact tests, and 3D visualizations. Results: A total of 130 perimortem traumas, including chop marks, slice marks, penetrating lesions, and blunt traumas were identified on 22 individuals. Chop marks were mostly at the level of the skull and vertebrae and were likely caused by bladed weapons. Slice marks were found on the cervical vertebrae and cranium and may be the result of throat slitting and scalping by means of smaller bladed implements. Traumas were more frequent in males, and their presence is not correlated with age. Discussion: This study adds new data to the few available regarding violence among steppe nomadic cultures and provides new insights about the effects of political instability on the life of the people inhabiting Eastern Eurasia during the early centuries CE.

Comparing Analysis of Pretreatment Methods of Wood and Bone Materials for the Chronology of Peripheral Burials at Tunnug 1, Tuva Republic, Russia

“…During this first field research campaign, a large Early Iron Age burial mound in the Uyuk Valley in southern Siberia was meticulously mapped by means of photogrammetry and small test excavations provided a first idea of the chronological setting of the site (Caspari et al 2018). A massive stone mound with several dozen buried individuals, many of whom died a violent death, was uncovered in 2019 (Milella et al 2021). The 14 C dates from larch wood recovered from the test excavations indicated a date for the construction of the burial mound in the 9th century BCE, this was later confirmed through additional 14 C dates in combination with dendrochronology (wiggle matching) (Caspari et al 2020a).…”

“…Already in 2018 an amorphous barrow was identified in the southern periphery, under which numerous burial pits were located (Sadykov et al 2019). Most of them date to the 2nd-4th century CE and belong to the Kokel culture (Milella et al 2021;Sadykov et al 2021). These burial pits contain partially preserved wooden coffins, well-preserved human bones, as well as meat offerings remaining in the form of animal bones.…”

“…Initial samples of human bone and wood were radiocarbon dated by LARA-Bern laboratory as a part of previous studies (Milella et al 2021). The material selected for radiocarbon dating for this study came from nine burial pits under a large amorphous stone accumulation in the southern periphery of the Tunnug 1 site.…”

The Kokel of Southern Siberia: New data on a post-Xiongnu material culture

“…We interpret the high proportion of violent deaths as a further indication of small-scale conflict. The numerous chop marks on some skeletons seem to indicate unorderly raids and the overall distribution of skeletal trauma shows that people fought both on foot and from horseback [36]. Frequent finds of arrowheads in skeletal regions add to these observations.…”

“…The sex ratio is therefore strikingly similar to that of Kokel, whereas the age distribution slightly different (Fig 6). A large amount of males at Tunnug 1 present perimortem trauma suggestive of combat and/or ritual practices [36], and this type of bias may be the source of bias in sex ratio observed. Perimortem trauma are also present at Kokel [37], and warfare may well be the source of the sex bias at this site.…”