The Kokel of Southern Siberia: New data on a post-Xiongnu material culture

Abstract

From the end of the Xiongnu Empire to the establishment of the first Turkic Khaganate, the territory of Southern Siberia sees the emergence of distinctive local material cultures. The Kokel culture is essentially unknown in the international English-language literature even though archaeological sites pertaining to this material culture are among the most common in Tuva (Southern Siberia). This makes them important for the understanding aspects of the sociocultural dynamics following the collapse of the first “steppe empire”. Here we present the results of the study of a Kokel funerary site recently excavated near the Early Iron Age kurgan Tunnug 1 and discuss the data in the context of the available Soviet and Russian literature. The Kokel culture substantially differs from the material culture of the Xiongnu and has to be seen as a largely independent cultural entity of small tribal groups without a pronounced social hierarchy engaging in frequent violent local conflict.

Dining in Tuva: Social correlates of diet and mobility in Southern Siberia during the 2nd–4th centuries CE

“…Tunnug1 (Milella et al, 2021;Sadykov et al, 2021), we expect a relatively low degree of social differentiation, and minor to no differences in diet based on sex or social status in this community.…”

“…As mentioned, funerary variability at Tunnug1 is rather homogenous, including few luxury goods and no burials suggesting an exceptionally high social status of the deceased (Milella et al, 2021; Sadykov et al, 2021). The comparison of funerary and isotopic data (Table S4) further suggests the absence of sharp social differences at the site possibly responsible of different dietary habits.…”

“…Specifically, we test the following hypotheses:H1 Assuming a mixed subsistence economy for the population under study (see Murphy et al, 2013; Spengler et al, 2021; Ventresca Miller et al, 2021; Ventresca Miller & Makarewicz, 2019), we expect the diet of this community to be represented by a heavy reliance on animal proteins coupled with other resources (C 4 plant products and/or freshwater fish).H2 According to previous archeological and ethnographic studies (Ventresca Miller et al, 2021) we expect mobility at Tunnug1 to be relatively low and represented by few nonlocal individuals.H3 Based on the low variability in funerary customs at Tunnug1 (Milella et al, 2021; Sadykov et al, 2021), we expect a relatively low degree of social differentiation, and minor to no differences in diet based on sex or social status in this community.…”

“…With the expansion of the first steppe Empire in the 2nd c. BCE, Tuva sees an amalgamation of cultural characteristics and stylistic elements of Xiongnu material culture with indigenous elements, showing long‐distance connectivity of networks and a degree of integration into the social system of the empire including specific burial traditions and prestige goods (Kilunovskaya & Leus, 2018, 2020a, 2020b; Leus, 2011; Leus & Bel'skiy, 2016; Miller, 2011). The centuries after the decline of the Xiongnu Empire see the emergence of the distinct local Kokel culture (Sadykov et al, 2021) lasting from the 2nd c. to the 5th c. CE.…”

The polymorphism and tradition of funerary practices of medieval Turks in light of new findings from Tuva Republic

“…The exception is an amorphous Kokel cemetery, consisting of numerous burial structures built over an extended period of time without recognizable pre-planning patterns. The Kokel cemetery superimposes on a chain of Scythian stone circles fringing the main burial mound [ 59 ]. The general form of the separable peripheral structures is a low-lying cairn overlaying a perimetric stone circle with a central pit.…”