Trends in Deforestation and Forest Degradation after a Decade of Monitoring in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in Mexico

Abstract

We used aerial photographs, satellite images, and field surveys to monitor forest cover in the core zones of the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in Mexico from 2001 to 2012. We used our data to assess the effectiveness of conservation actions that involved local, state, and federal authorities and community members (e.g., local landowners and private and civil organizations) in one of the world’s most iconic protected areas. From 2001 through 2012, 1254 ha were deforested (i.e., cleared areas had <10% canopy cover), 925 ha were degraded (i.e., areas for which canopy forest decreased), and 122 ha were affected by climatic conditions. Of the total 2179 ha of affected area, 2057 ha were affected by illegal logging: 1503 ha by large-scale logging and 554 ha by small-scale logging. Mexican authorities effectively enforced efforts to protect the monarch reserve, particularly from 2007 to 2012. Those efforts, together with the decade-long financial support from Mexican and international philanthropists and businesses to create local alternative-income generation and employment, resulted in the decrease of large-scale illegal logging from 731 ha affected in 2005–2007 to none affected in 2012, although small-scale logging is of growing concern. However, dire regional social and economic problems remain, and they must be addressed to ensure the reserve’s long-term conservation. The monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) overwintering colonies in Mexico—which engage in one of the longest known insect migrations—are threatened by deforestation, and a multistakeholder, regional, sustainable-development strategy is needed to protect the reserve.

Assessing Role of Major Drivers in Recent Decline of Monarch Butterfly Population in North America

“…The WWF has also promoted sustainable tourism in this region through investments to improve infrastructure, equipment and training. Moreover, enforcement by Mexican authorities to curtail illegal logging and financial support from environmental philanthropists and businesses to help create alternative sources of income have reduced the quantity of deforestation (Vidal et al, 2013). Deforestation quantity overtime has been scientifically mapped through the use of aerial photography, satellite images, and field surveys (Vidal et al, 2013).…”

“…Moreover, enforcement by Mexican authorities to curtail illegal logging and financial support from environmental philanthropists and businesses to help create alternative sources of income have reduced the quantity of deforestation (Vidal et al, 2013). Deforestation quantity overtime has been scientifically mapped through the use of aerial photography, satellite images, and field surveys (Vidal et al, 2013). Saenz-Romero et al (2012) devised simulation models to predict the quantity of suitable habitat for the A. religiosa trees utilized by overwintering monarchs in central Mexico and best practices for future A. religiosa habitat conservation efforts.…”

Monarch Butterflies Use Regenerating Milkweeds for Reproduction in Mowed Hayfields in Northern Virginia

“…The dramatic loss of milkweed from the monarch's summer breeding grounds thus puts the monarch at risk of extinction (Flockhart et al 2014), and this risk is magnified by other ongoing threat factors such as climate change, severe weather events, and habitat loss to development (Brower et al 2011(Brower et al , 2012aSaenz Romero et al 2012, Vidal et al 2013). …”

“…and Wiens) (Steed and Willhite 2011, p. 12). In field visits from 2011 - , Vidal et al (2013 identified 14 ha of forest that had been impacted by drought and parasitic plants (Arceuthobium spp. and Psittacanthus calyculatus) and an additional 7 ha that had been logged for disease control (p. 181).…”

“…From 2009-2011, 115 hectares of forest were impacted by floods, strong winds, droughts, and fires, and 21 additional hectares were impacted by drought and parasitic plants in (Vidal et al 2013. From 2008 to 2011, the monarch reserve was affected by extreme drought which likely stressed the trees and made them more vulnerable to disease (Vidal et al 2013, p. 182).…”