Traumatic Distress of COVID-19 and Depression in the General Population: Exploring the Role of Resilience, Anxiety, and Hope

Abstract

International evidence published so far shows that the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted on global mental health. Specifically, there is some research suggesting that the psychological distress related to depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress has impacted on the psychological well-being of the general population. Yet, there is limited evidence on the relational paths between COVID-19 traumatic distress and depression. Participants of this cross-sectional study were 456 adults 18 years old or older from the general population (Mean age = 41.2 years, SD = 11.7) who completed an online questionnaire including measures assessing depression, anxiety, resilience, hope and traumatic distress related to COVID-19. Structural equation modelling was applied to examine the proposed mediation model. The results confirmed the proposed model, with traumatic distress of COVID-19, resilience, anxiety and hope explaining a considerable amount of variance (59%) in depression scores. Traumatic distress of COVID-19 was a strong positive predictor of depression, while anxiety, hope and resilience were both joint and unique mediators of this relationship. Exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic is strongly associated with depression in adults of the general population. The co-occurrence of anxiety may negatively contribute to experiencing higher levels of depression, while resilience and hope may act as buffers against depression associated with the impact of this pandemic. Our findings suggest that wide community-based interventions designed to promote resilience, build hope and reduce anxiety may help mitigate depression associated with exposure to the COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 Related Stress and Mental Health Outcomes 1 Year After the Peak of the Pandemic Outbreak in China: the Mediating Effect of Resilience and Social Support

“…When people go through the adversity of COVID-19, resilience may work as a crucial factor in reducing the stressful experience, consequently maintaining people's mental health. In line with this, abundant research has demonstrated the indirect effect of resilience between stress and mental health outcomes such as depression and anxiety ( 7 , 25 ).…”

“…These negative mental health outcomes may attribute to the stress induced by the COVID-19 pandemic, as some researchers indicated that COVID-19 related stress made people more vulnerable to developing mental health issues (3,4). Recent studies further confirmed an association between COVID-19 related stress and negative mental health outcomes (5)(6)(7). Besides, some researchers found that COVID-19 related mental health outcomes are not static but dynamic events that fluctuate with the number of infected cases (8).…”

Mental Health Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mexican Population: A Systematic Review

“…Worldwide, several studies have been performed to explore the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of the general population. The COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with anxiety, distress, fear of contagion, insomnia and depression [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Prolonged social distancing protocols, economic stress and unemployment rates can originate a mental health crisis; moreover, social isolation has a detrimental effect on health, for both living alone and feelings of loneliness are risk factors for the increase in suicidal behavior [ 31 ].…”

The impact of the first wave of the Covid‐19 pandemic on parents of children with externalising difficulties in ireland: A longitudinal cohort study

“… 16 A cross‐sectional study considering the relational path between COVID‐19 distress and depression in the general population, in which a large proportion of respondents were living in Ireland, suggested the traumatic distress of COVID‐19 to have a strong positive effect on depression, which was mediated by resilience, anxiety and hope. 17 …”