Transparent conductors—A status review

Chopra, K. L.; Major, S.S.; Pandya, Dinesh K.

doi:10.1016/0040-6090(83)90256-0

Cited by 2,624 publications

(1,243 citation statements)

References 233 publications

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“…Such doping shifts E F inside the conduction band, forming a degenerate n-type semiconductor, which also leads to further widening of the optical band gap (E g ) following the Burstein-Moss relation: ∆E g ≈ N e 2/3 . [5,53,54] Free-carrier densities of TCOs range from 10 17 up to 10 21 cm −3 (for comparison, metals have N e on the order of 10 22 cm −3 ). Although increasing N e can be beneficial to the optical transmittance in the UV-vis range (wider optical E g ), such an increase has negative effects in the NIR-IR part of the spectrum due to parasitic optical absorption by free carriers in the conduction band.…”

Section: Progress Reportmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…To this classification, we add the processing compatibility requirements for actual device fabrication and electrode integration. Because reviews on each class of transparent electrodes are available (e.g., on metal oxide electrodes for displays and thin-film transistors, [2,3] on properties of transparent conductive oxides (TCOs); [4][5][6][7] and on general properties of graphene, carbon nanotubes and metallic nanostructures [8] ), the last section presents transparent electrodes by mostly focusing on the technological development, applications, and our perspective on future developments of inorganic electrodes.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Transparent Electrodes for Efficient Optoelectronics

Morales‐Masis

Wolf

Woods‐Robinson

et al. 2017

Adv Elect Materials

348

288

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With the development of new generations of optoelectronic devices that combine high performance and novel functionalities (e.g., flexibility/bendability, adaptability, semi or full transparency), several classes of transparent electrodes have been developed in recent years. These range from optimized transparent conductive oxides (TCOs), which are historically the most commonly used transparent electrodes, to new electrodes made from nano‐ and 2D materials (e.g., metal nanowire networks and graphene), and to hybrid electrodes that integrate TCOs or dielectrics with nanowires, metal grids, or ultrathin metal films. Here, the most relevant transparent electrodes developed to date are introduced, their fundamental properties are described, and their materials are classified according to specific application requirements in high efficiency solar cells and flexible organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs). This information serves as a guideline for selecting and developing appropriate transparent electrodes according to intended application requirements and functionality.

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Section: Progress Reportmentioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Transparent Electrodes for Efficient Optoelectronics

Morales‐Masis

Wolf

Woods‐Robinson

et al. 2017

Adv Elect Materials

348

288

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“…Serving as a contact and a window layer simultaneously, TCOs are a vital part of many optoelectronic devices including solar cells, smart windows and flat panel displays, and they also find application as heating, antistatic and optical coatings, for select reviews see Refs. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Multicomponent TCOs -complex oxides which contain a combination of post-transition metals, In, Zn, Ga, Cd or Sn, as well as light main-group metals such as Al or Mg -have attracted wide attention due to a possibility to manipulate the optical, electronic, and thermal properties via the chemical composition and, thus, to significantly broaden the application range of TCO materials [1,3,[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15].…”

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confidence: 99%

Electronic properties of layered multicomponent wide-band-gap oxides: A combinatorial approach

Murat

Medvedeva

2012

Phys. Rev. B

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The structural, electronic, and optical properties of twelve multicomponent oxides with layered structure, RAMO4, where R 3+ =In or Sc; A 3+ =Al or Ga; and M 2+ =Ca, Cd, Mg, or Zn, are investigated using first-principles density functional approach. The compositional complexity of RAMO4 leads to a wide range of band gap values varying from 2.45 eV for InGaCdO4 to 6.29 eV for ScAlMgO4 as obtained from our self-consistent screened-exchange local density approximation calculations. Strikingly, despite the different band gaps in the oxide constituents, namely, 2-4 eV in CdO, In2O3, or ZnO; 5-6 eV for Ga2O3 or Sc2O3; and 7-9 eV in CaO, MgO, or Al2O3, the bottom of the conduction band in the multicomponent oxides is formed from the s-states of all cations and their neighboring oxygen p-states. We show that the hybrid nature of the conduction band in multicomponent oxides originates from the unusual five-fold atomic coordination of A 3+ and M 2+ cations which enables the interaction between the spatially-spread s-orbitals of adjacent cations via shared oxygen atoms. The effect of the local atomic coordination on the band gap, the electron effective mass, the orbital composition of the conduction band, and the expected (an)isotropic character of the electron transport in layered RAMO4 is thoroughly discussed.

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“…Among many TCOs, indium tin oxide (ITO) is one of the most frequently utilized materials in practical optoelectronic devices. ITO films may be fabricated by many methods, including reactive thermal evaporation deposition, magnetron sputtering, electron beam evaporation, spray pyrolysis, and chemical vapor deposition [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. The optical transparency and electrical conduction mechanism of ITO films have been studied extensively, and important fabrication parameters that control the electrical conductivity of ITO films have been described in detail in Refs [3,10,11].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Carrier concentration dependence of optical Kerr nonlinearity in indium tin oxide films

Elim

Zhu

2006

Appl. Phys. B

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Optical Kerr nonlinearity (n 2 ) in n-type indium tin oxide (ITO) films coated on glass substrates has been measured using Z-scans with 200-fs laser pulses at wavelengths ranging from 720 to 780 nm. The magnitudes of the measured nonlinearity in the ITO films were found to be dependent on the carrier concentration with a maximum n 2 -value of 4.1 x 10 -5 cm 2 /GW at 720-nm wavelength and an electron density of N d = 5.8 x 10 20 cm -3 . The Kerr nonlinearity was also observed to be varied with the laser wavelength. By employing a femtosecond time-resolved optical Kerr effect (OKE) technique, the relaxation time of OKE in the ITO films is determined to be ~1 ps. These findings suggest that the Kerr nonlinearity in ITO can be tailored by controlling the carrier concentration, which should be highly desirable in optoelectronic devices for ultrafast alloptical switching.

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Transparent conductors—A status review

Cited by 2,624 publications

References 233 publications

Transparent Electrodes for Efficient Optoelectronics

Transparent Electrodes for Efficient Optoelectronics

Electronic properties of layered multicomponent wide-band-gap oxides: A combinatorial approach

Carrier concentration dependence of optical Kerr nonlinearity in indium tin oxide films

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