Toxicology of food dyes

Abstract

This review finds that all of the nine currently US-approved dyes raise health concerns of varying degrees. Red 3 causes cancer in animals, and there is evidence that several other dyes also are carcinogenic. Three dyes (Red 40, Yellow 5, and Yellow 6) have been found to be contaminated with benzidine or other carcinogens. At least four dyes (Blue 1, Red 40, Yellow 5, and Yellow 6) cause hypersensitivity reactions. Numerous microbiological and rodent studies of Yellow 5 were positive for genotoxicity. Toxicity tests on two dyes (Citrus Red 2 and Orange B) also suggest safety concerns, but Citrus Red 2 is used at low levels and only on some Florida oranges and Orange B has not been used for several years. The inadequacy of much of the testing and the evidence for carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and hypersensitivity, coupled with the fact that dyes do not improve the safety or nutritional quality of foods, indicates that all of the currently used dyes should be removed from the food supply and replaced, if at all, by safer colorings. It is recommended that regulatory authorities require better and independent toxicity testing, exercise greater caution regarding continued approval of these dyes, and in the future approve only well-tested, safe dyes.

Milk Preservatives and Adulterants: Processing, Regulatory and Safety Issues

“…(108) Coal-tar dyes are considered carcinogenic for humans. (109) Sodium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide is an inorganic compound, also known as caustic soda or lye. As per the codex alimentarius commission, sodium hydroxide can be used in fermented milks and other dairy products as per the provisions of GMP, but is not allowed in raw milk.…”

Inclusion complexes of yellow bell pepper pigments with β‐cyclodextrin: preparation, characterisation and application as food natural colorant

“…Toxicological studies have shown that dyes do not harm health if used within the limits defined by legislation. Nevertheless, there is still controversy about their possible harm, especially given the exaggerated consumption of industrialised products that currently occurs, particularly by children …”

“…Nevertheless, there is still controversy about their possible harm, especially given the exaggerated consumption of industrialised products that currently occurs, particularly by children. 2 In humans, consumption of a balanced diet rich in carotenoids has been inversely associated with the risk of diseases such as cancer 3 and macular degeneration. 4 In addition, some results describe a relationship between retinal carotenoids and neuroelectric indices underlying cognitive control 5 indicating that regular consumption of carotenoids is associated with maintaining health and wellness.…”

Presence of Mutagens and Carcinogens, Called Aflatoxins, and their Hydroxylated Metabolites in Industrialized Food for Dogs

“…Numerous microbiological and rodent studies of Yellow (5) were positive for genotoxicity. Toxicity tests performed on two dyes; Citrus Red (2) and Orange B also suggest safety concerns, but Citrus Red (2) is used at low levels and only in some Florida oranges and Orange B has not been used for several years [70]. All dog food contains derivatives from all types of meat, and viscera, such as the liver, are a=Only case where dry food was more contaminated with AFL than canned food, there was more biotransformation of basic aflatoxins to the AFL hydroxylate metabolite.…”

“…Among the AF risk ingredients of dog food are cereals, such as corn and rice, and leguminosae, such as soybean, which are frequently contaminated with AFs. Artificial pigments pose a cancer risk [70]. Red (40), Yellow (5), and Yellow (6) have been found to be contaminated with benzidine or other carcinogens.…”