Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading

LaBerge, David; Samuels, S. Jay

doi:10.1016/0010-0285(74)90015-2

Cited by 2,984 publications

(1,954 citation statements)

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“…Automatization of component processes precedes the development of hierarchical control (e.g., Abrahamse et al, 2013;Bryan & Harter, 1899;LaBerge & Samuels, 1974;Rhodes et al, 2004;Vallacher & Wegner, 1987). Automaticity develops by strengthening the associations that underlie the skill, and hierarchical processing emerges when the associations become strong enough to support performance without conscious control (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974;Logan, 1988;Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977).…”

Section: The Role Of Automaticity In Hierarchical Control Of Skillmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pushing typists back on the learning curve: Revealing chunking in skilled typewriting.

Yamaguchi¹,

Logan²

2014

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

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Theories of skilled performance propose that highly trained skills involve hierarchically structured control processes. The present study examined and demonstrated hierarchical control at several levels of processing in skilled typewriting. In the first two experiments, we scrambled the order of letters in words to prevent skilled typists from chunking letters, and compared typing words and scrambled words. Experiment 1 manipulated stimulus quality to reveal chunking in perception, and Experiment 2 manipulated concurrent memory load to reveal chunking in short-term memory (STM). Both experiments manipulated the number of letters in words and nonwords to reveal chunking in motor planning. In the next two experiments, we degraded typing skill by altering the usual haptic feedback by using a laser-projection keyboard, so that typists had to monitor keystrokes. Neither the number of motor chunks (Experiment 3) nor the number of STM items (Experiment 4) was influenced by the manipulation. The results indicate that the utilization of hierarchical control depends on whether the input allows chunking but not on whether the output is generated automatically. We consider the role of automaticity in hierarchical control of skilled performance.

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Section: The Role Of Automaticity In Hierarchical Control Of Skillmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pushing typists back on the learning curve: Revealing chunking in skilled typewriting.

Yamaguchi¹,

Logan²

2014

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

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“…According to traditional models of automaticity in cognitive psychology such as those of LaBerge and Samuels (1974), Posner and Snyder (1975), and Schneider and Shiffrin (1977), 'automatic' processes generally share three primary characteristics: they are (1) capacity-free and effortless, (2) stimulus driven, and (3) operate outside of awareness. The present findings showing the effects of attentional weighting on automatic imitation suggest that this process does not meet the second of these criteria.…”

Section: The Automaticity Of 'Automatic' Imitationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Automatic imitation of biomechanically possible and impossible actions: Effects of priming movements versus goals.

Longo¹,

Kosobud²,

Bertenthal³

2008

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

102

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Recent behavioral, neuroimaging, and neurophysiological research suggest a common representational code mediating the observation and execution of actions; yet, the nature of this representational code is not well understood. We address this question by investigating whether this observation-execution matching system (or mirror system) codes both the constituent movements of an action as well as its goal, and how such sensitivity is influenced by the topdown effects of instructions. Automatic imitation of observed finger actions was tested by manipulating whether the movements were biomechanically possible or impossible, while holding the goal constant. When no mention was made of this difference (Experiment 1), comparable automatic imitation was elicited from possible and impossible actions, suggesting that the actions had been coded at the level of the goal. When attention was drawn to the difference between possible and impossible movements (Experiment 2), only possible movements elicited automatic imitation. This sensitivity was specific to imitation, not affecting spatial S-R compatibility (Experiment 3). These results suggest that the human mirror system isautomatic imitation is modulated by top-down influences, coding actions in terms of both movements and goals depending on the focus of attention.

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“…It used to be a commonplace claim that after extensive practice at reading, recognition of an attentively fixated familiar word becomes "automatic" (e.g., Brown, Gore, & Carr, 2002;LaBerge & Samuels, 1974, Posner & Snyder, 1975 -implying involuntariness and lack of attentional resource demand, or both. The Stroop effect -the marked interference observed when a color name is printed in a conflicting color and participants must name the font color (Stroop, 1935) -has in particular been interpreted as showing that, for skilled readers, recognition of a familiar word and access to its meaning or phonology is "automatic", in the 5 sense of involuntary.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

A change of task prolongs early processes: Evidence from ERPs in lexical tasks.

Elchlepp¹,

Lavric²,

Monsell³

2015

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

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Switching tasks costs time. Allowing time to prepare reduces the cost, but usually leaves an irreducible "residual cost". Most accounts of this residual cost locate it within the responseselection stage of processing. To determine which processing stage is affected, we measured event-related potentials (ERPs) as participants performed a reading or a perceptual judgment task and examined the effect of a task-switch on early markers of lexical processing. A task cue preceding a string of blue and red letters instructed the participant either to read the letter string (for a semantic classification in Experiment 1, a lexical decision in Experiment 2), or to judge the symmetry of its color pattern. In Experiment 1, having to switch to the reading task delayed the evolution of the effect of word frequency on the reading task ERP by a substantial fraction of the effect on RT. In Experiment 2, a task switch delayed the onset of the effect of lexical status on the ERP to about the same extent that it prolonged the RT. These effects indicate an early locus of (most of) the residual switch cost: we propose that this reflects a form of task-related attentional inertia. Other findings have implications for the automaticity of lexical access: effects of frequency, lexicality and orthographic familiarity on ERPs in the symmetry task indicated involuntary but attenuated orthographic and lexical processing even when attention was focused on a non-lexical property. 3It is generally harder to switch among several cognitive tasks than to continue to perform just one. A popular way to capture at least part of this multitasking overhead in the laboratory is to conduct a reaction time (RT) experiment in which, on each of a series of trials, a stimulus is presented, and the participant must perform one of several possible tasks. On some trials the task changes, on others it does not, other things being equal. Several such "task-switching" paradigms have been developed and extensively explored over the last two decades. (For reviews see Kiesel, Steinhauser, Wendt, Falkenstein, Jost, Philipp, & Koch, 2010;Monsell, 2003;Vandierendonck, Liefooghe, & Verbruggen, 2010). The most obvious phenomenon they reveal is the substantial cost to performance of a switch of task: the average RT for a correct response is longer (and there are usually more errors) when the task changes than when it does not.The opportunity to prepare for a task before presentation of the stimulus generally reduces this switch cost, but does not eliminate it (Meiran, 1996;Rogers & Monsell, 1995). To manipulate preparation time unconfounded by the time elapsing since the previous performance of a task, task-cuing can be used (Meiran, 1996): each stimulus follows the previous response by a standard interval, and a task cue precedes the stimulus by an interval which is independently manipulated to vary preparation time. As the cue-stimulus interval (CSI) is increased from zero, the RT switch cost reduces to an asymptotic residual cost, usually reached at a CSI of bet...

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Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading

Cited by 2,984 publications

References 25 publications

Pushing typists back on the learning curve: Revealing chunking in skilled typewriting.

Pushing typists back on the learning curve: Revealing chunking in skilled typewriting.

Automatic imitation of biomechanically possible and impossible actions: Effects of priming movements versus goals.

A change of task prolongs early processes: Evidence from ERPs in lexical tasks.

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