Toward a comprehensive functional analysis of depressive behavior: Five environmental factors and a possible sixth and seventh.

Abstract

With recent advances in the behavioral treatment of depression and growing dissatisfaction with medical and cognitive interventions, a resurgence of interest in behavior analytic treatment of depression has occurred. Currently, several behavioral and cognitive behavioral models of depression exist. In reviewing these models, certain agreed upon environmental factors emerge. In this paper, we explore five factors related to a behavioral treatment of depression. Three of these factors view depressive behavior as a bi-product of person-behavior-environment interaction. These are (1) lack of response contingent reinforcement of behavior, (2) too much punishment of behavioral responses, and (3) loss of effective operant behavior. In addition, two models view depressive behavior as operant behavior as controlled by ( 4) positive reinforcement and/or (5) negative reinforcement. Two final factors to consider are (1) depressive behavior develops as a failure to develop or an over reliance on rule governed behavior and (2) environmental factors that precipitate depression may be viewed as establishing operations. Each of these factors will be explored as well as multiple combinations of these factors in the generation and continuation of depression.

Frontal alpha asymmetry as a pathway to behavioural withdrawal in depression: Research findings and issues

“…Although it is often assumed that GAD causally precedes MDD [161,162], other evidence indicates that the opposite occurs almost as commonly [163], suggesting that, rather than one of these diseases being the precursor of the other, they may both be aspects of the same condition. These data also lend support to the model of depression as an escape and withdrawal response to overwhelming adverse environmental events [13,15,16] also being applicable to anxiety and argue for the inclusion of anxiety as a measure in future studies of EEG asymmetry in depression. interest is the conjecture as to why there should be such an association between these other disorders and EEG asymmetry, since this might generate a plausible hypothesis for testing.…”

“…Conceptualized by Ferster [11] and reiterated by several authors since then [12][13][14][15][16], sadness, anhedonia, sleep and appetite change and cognitive disturbances may be seen as part of a "biological response pattern … identified as the conservation-withdrawal response to excesses or deficits of stimulation" [12, p. 127] that includes low self-esteem, hopelessness and helplessness, all of which are symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) [4]. An important aspect of the mechanism underlying this withdrawal is the conviction on the part of the depressive person that he/she has no real control or effective response (other than withdrawal) over the unpleasant experience that is occurring [17,18] and therefore is left with a single response that will reduce distress-i.e., withdrawal from the environment that includes the unpleasantness.…”

“…Although such withdrawal responses may become self-defeating in the longer term, they may also have positive immediate benefits [14] and have been described as 'adaptive' [17,[19][20][21] in that they reduce the quantum of noxious stimuli to which the person is exposed. As well as the withdrawal response from chronic aversive stressors (i.e., additional unpleasant stimuli), behaviour withdrawal may also occur as a response to decreased environmental rewards and reinforcers (i.e., fewer pleasant stimuli) [22,23].…”

A learning theory account of depression

“…Since there was some evidence that assertion training could be an effective treatment (Sanchez, Lewinsohn & Larson, ), it was hypothesized that social skill deficits were at times responsible for reduced social reinforcement, thereby contributing to depression. However, the negative correlation found between social skills and depression could be interpreted that what appears to be skill deficits may at times be treated as a consequence, rather than a cause, of depression (Kanter, Cautilli, Busch & Baruch, ).…”

Activación Conductual: Revisión Histórica, Conceptual y Empírica

“…La propuesta de Ferster sigue siendo una de las teorías vigentes en la explicación de la depresión (Kanter, Cautilli, Busch, & Baruch, 2011). De acuerdo con esta, las conductas depresivas, se caracterizan por una disminución en la frecuencia de las conductas ajustadas a las demandas del contexto y un incremento en la ocurrencia de comportamientos con función de evitación y escape de situaciones o condiciones estimulares que pudiesen facilitar su funcionamiento, proponiendo una aproximación dinámica para explicarla.…”