Tissue transglutaminase exacerbates renal fibrosis via alternative activation of monocyte-derived macrophages

Abstract

Macrophages are important components in modulating homeostatic and inflammatory responses and are generally categorized into two broad but distinct subsets: classical activated (M1) and alternatively activated (M2) depending on the microenvironment. Fibrosis is a chronic inflammatory disease exacerbated by M2 macrophages, although the detailed mechanism by which M2 macrophage polarization is regulated remains unclear. These polarization mechanisms have little in common between mice and humans, making it difficult to adapt research results obtained in mice to human diseases. Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) is a known marker common to mouse and human M2 macrophages and is a multifunctional enzyme responsible for crosslinking reactions. Here we sought to identify the role of TG2 in macrophage polarization and fibrosis. In IL-4-treated macrophages derived from mouse bone marrow and human monocyte cells, the expression of TG2 was increased with enhancement of M2 macrophage markers, whereas knockout or inhibitor treatment of TG2 markedly suppressed M2 macrophage polarization. In the renal fibrosis model, accumulation of M2 macrophages in fibrotic kidney was significantly reduced in TG2 knockout or inhibitor-administrated mice, along with the resolution of fibrosis. Bone marrow transplantation using TG2-knockout mice revealed that TG2 is involved in M2 polarization of infiltrating macrophages derived from circulating monocytes and exacerbates renal fibrosis. Furthermore, the suppression of renal fibrosis in TG2-knockout mice was abolished by transplantation of wild-type bone marrow or by renal subcapsular injection of IL4-treated macrophages derived from bone marrow of wild-type, but not TG2 knockout. Transcriptome analysis of downstream targets involved in M2 macrophages polarization revealed that ALOX15 expression was enhanced by TG2 activation and promoted M2 macrophage polarization. Furthermore, the increase in the abundance of ALOX15-expressing macrophages in fibrotic kidney was dramatically suppressed in TG2-knockout mice. These findings demonstrated that TG2 activity exacerbates renal fibrosis by polarization of M2 macrophages from monocytes via ALOX15.

In silico studies of the open form of human tissue transglutaminase

“…The protein plays a signi cant role in numerous biological processes, including protein binding, apoptosis, wound healing, immune response, calcium signaling, and cellular differentiation [1][2][3]. The involvement of tTG in many biological processes leads to the protein being a potential therapeutic target for drug development in diseases such as renal brosis, Alzheimer's disease, and celiac sprue [4][5][6].…”

In silico studies of the open form of human tissue transglutaminase

“…The protein plays a significant role in numerous biological processes, including protein binding, apoptosis, wound healing, immune response, calcium signaling, and cellular differentiation 1 – 4 . The involvement of tTG in many biological processes leads to the protein being a potential therapeutic target for drug development in diseases such as renal fibrosis, Alzheimer’s disease, and celiac sprue 5 – 8 .…”