THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING: Introduction

Abstract

There are good theoretical and educational reasons to place matters of implicit and explicit learning high on the agenda for SLA research. As for theoretical motivations, perhaps the most central issue in SLA theory construction in need of explanation is the differential success in one's first language (L1) and in one's second language (L2). Although acquisition of an L1 results in full mastery of the language (provided that children are exposed to sufficient quantities of input and do not suffer from mental disabilities), learners of an L2—even after many years of L2 exposure—differ widely in level of attainment. How can we explain universal success in the case of L1 acquisition and differential success in the case of L2 acquisition? Among the many explanations that have been proposed, including brain maturation and brain adaptation processes (critical period), access to Universal Grammar, L1 interference, and sociopsychological factors (see Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2003, for a review), one finds explanations that involve the notions of implicit and explicit learning. Scholars working in different disciplines, in different theoretical schools, and sometimes using different terminology have argued that L1 acquisition (or at least the acquisition of L1 grammar) relies principally on processes of what we might now call implicit learning, whereas the acquisition of an L2 often relies on both implicit and explicit learning (Bley-Vroman, 1991; DeKeyser, 2003; N. Ellis, this issue; R. Ellis, 2004; Krashen, 1981; Reber & Allen, 2000).I am grateful to Rod Ellis for his thoughtful comments on previous versions of this text.

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“…Explicit knowledge is defined as declarative knowledge that can be brought into awareness and that is potentially available for verbal report, while implicit knowledge is defined as knowledge that cannot be brought into awareness and cannot be articulated (Anderson, 2005;Hulstijn, 2005). Accordingly, explicit learning refers to situations "when the learner has online awareness, formulating and testing conscious hypotheses in the course of learning".…”

“…Accordingly, explicit learning refers to situations "when the learner has online awareness, formulating and testing conscious hypotheses in the course of learning". Conversely, implicit learning "describes when learning takes place without these processes; it is an unconscious process of induction resulting in intuitive knowledge that exceeds what can be expressed by learners" (N. Ellis, 1994: 38-39; see also N. Ellis, 1996;Hulstijn, 2005).…”

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“…This interaction can demonstrate for the teacher what the L2 learners can do and what they cannot do, this in turn, gives the opportunity to the teacher to allocate time and a suitable type of feedback to the learners. Hulstijn (2006) and Ellis (2006) suggested that attention, consciousness and awareness play a role in the implicit learning process, and this argument, supported by (Dekeyser, 2003;Ellis, 1994;and Schmidt, 1994), this is also in line with the point of views of (Schmidt &Frota, 1986;Alanen, 1995;Ellis, 1996;Ellis & Sinclair, 1999;Ellis& Schmidt, 1997;Grabe&Stoller, 1997;Leow,1997;Miyke& Friedman,1998;Rosa & O' Neil,1999;Mackey, 2002)and Swain &Lapkin, 2002), who examined cognitive processes in second language learning; their conclusion was also supported by (Gass&Varonis, 1994;Robinson, 1995Robinson, , 2001and 2003Long, 1996;Gass, 1997;Mackey et al2000, andPhilip,2003). They all agree that attention and awareness in particular have been identified as two cognitive processes that mediate input and L2 development through interaction.…”

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“…Some research has been conducted in the field of L2 learning examining the different ways in which beginning adult learners process their L2. Specifically, various studies have investigated the nature of this processing in terms of its implicit and explicit components, drawing a distinction between them.According to some authors (e.g., R. Hulstijn, 2005), explicit and implicit knowledge differ, among other things, in the extent to which one is consciously aware or intuitively aware of regular patterns in the information one possesses, and the extent to which one can or cannot verbalize such patterns, respectively. Furthermore, access to implicit knowledge is thought to occur automatically whereas access to explicit knowledge is thought to involve controlled processes (N. R.…”

“…According to some authors (e.g., R. Hulstijn, 2005), explicit and implicit knowledge differ, among other things, in the extent to which one is consciously aware or intuitively aware of regular patterns in the information one possesses, and the extent to which one can or cannot verbalize such patterns, respectively. Furthermore, access to implicit knowledge is thought to occur automatically whereas access to explicit knowledge is thought to involve controlled processes (N. R.…”