The worldwide status of phasmids (Insecta: Phasmida) as pests of agriculture and forestry, with a generalised theory of phasmid outbreaks

Abstract

Stick insects have been reported as significant phytophagous pests of agricultural and timber crops since the 1880s in North America, China, Australia and Pacific Islands. Much of the early literature comes from practical journals for farmers, and even twentieth Century reports can be problematic to locate. Unlike the plaguing Orthoptera, there has been no synthesis of the pest status of this enigmatic order of insects. This paper provides a literature synthesis of those species known to cause infestation or that are known to damage plants of economic importance; summarises historical and modern techniques for infestation management; and lists known organisms with potential for use as biological control agents. A generalised theory of outbreaks is presented and suggestions for future research efforts are made.

Structure-Activity Studies on the Hypertrehalosemic Hormone II of the Stick Insect Carausius morosus (Phasmatodea): Carbohydrate-Mobilization and Cardio-Stimulatory Activities

“…Phasmids are generally not regarded as serious pest insects since they do not pose a direct threat to food security, nor are they known to be vectors of diseases, nevertheless quite damaging outbreaks of stick insect population numbers have been recorded over the years in Australia, North America, China and other geographical areas, where they defoliate economically important timber crops (Baker, 2015). Such defoliated timber trees respond in subsequent years with a smaller stem diameter which is deleterious to the pulp industry.…”

“…Such defoliated timber trees respond in subsequent years with a smaller stem diameter which is deleterious to the pulp industry. Although many stick insect species are apterous and can therefore not spread as rapidly and widely as winged insects, they can have a serious local impact in the event of an outbreak (Baker, 2015). Pest status notwithstanding, are there any lessons to learn from our work here on the physiological action of AKH ligands in the Indian stick insect C. morosus that may be useful for the design of a peptide mimetic that could act specifically to target known pest insects without interfering with other insects?…”

Ecological interactions in the Scratchpads virtual research environment

“…In addition, some interactions have significant importance, such as the defoliation of food and timber crops by stick insects (Baker 2015b). Consequently, the module supports efforts to record the importance of an interaction to one of several values (Table 3).…”

An online taxonomic database of the stick insect (Phasmida) egg-parasitising subfamilies Amiseginae and Loboscelidiinae (Hymenoptera: Chrysididae)

“…The Phasmida (= Phasmatodea ; Phasmatoptera ; Cheleutoptera ) are large, obligate herbivores ( Bedford 1978 ) that are known as pests of agriculture and forestry in North America, Asia, and Oceania ( Baker 2015 ). The wasp subfamilies Amiseginae and Loboscelidiinae are believed to be obligate parasitoids of phasmid eggs ( Krombein 1983 ), and as such, they have potential for the biological control of phasmid outbreaks and infestations.…”

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Background The wasp subfamilies Amiseginae and Loboscelidiinae ( Hymenoptera : Chrysididae ) were last catalogued in Kimsey and Bohart (1991) . The subfamilies are considered to be obligate egg parasitoids of the Phasmida (stick insects), which are known to be pests in many areas of the world ( Baker 2015 ). Our lack of knowledge of these wasps, in particular their host associations and host specificity, prevents studies into using them as potential control agents for pest phasmids.

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