The Upper Mustang (Nepal) ecosystem: Population, water quality and tourism

Abstract

Upper Mustang, a Nepalese valley of high environmental, social and historical interest, and part of the Mustang District, is located in the Trans Himalayan Region, bordering Tibet to the North, East and West, and from the South along the Kali-Gandaky Valley. The Upper Mustang area was opened to controlled tourism in 1992, such that no more than one thousand trekkers are allowed to visit this area annually. In order to give a clear view of the environmental quality in Upper Mustang, an evaluation has been made of socio-economic factors, water quality conditions, and tourism characteristics using a combination of biophysical parameters, demographic and human considerations, and the Tourist Positioning Index. With respect to ecosystem health, river water quality, spring water quality, state of human ecology and carrying capacity were considered. The observations from this study show that village water resources are vulnerable due to fecal pollution. Water used for drinking is exposed to human and animal fecal pollution because the area is almost totally devoid of sewage systems for the effective disposal of wastewater and human wastes. It is necessary to carry out drainage system in the villages and to protect the taps from animal and human fecal wastes with ‘respect areas.’

Measuring tourist’s water footprint in a mountain destination of Northwest Yunnan, China

“…This in turn deteriorates the water quality and affects aquatic biodiversity (Merz et al 2003). Untreated wastewater from the guesthouses could further worsen the water quality of local rivers (Boselli et al 2005) and add more health risks to people and environment (Daby et al 2002).…”

The effect of surface lithology on arsenic and other heavy metals in surface water and groundwater in Mustang Valley, Nepal Himalaya

“…Out of 24 groundwater sites, 19 (79%) exceeded the WHO As Standard, while 15 (63%) exceeded the Nepal Interim As Standard (Table 2a). Lo-Manthang, the largest village (population about 850) in Mustang Valley (Boselli et al 2005), has eight public water taps (Groundwater As Ranks 1, 3, 6-7, 9, 11, 13) and one water tap each in the courtyards of Choedhe Gompa (monastery) (Groundwater As Rank 10) and…”

“…The southern portion of Upper Mustang was mostly forested until 4500 yr BP based on charcoal, plant fossils and carbon isotope data from paleosols (Saijo and Tanaka 2002). According to Boselli et al (2005), extensive deforestation of Mustang Valley was carried out by the Khampas (Tibetan refugees) after the occupation of Tibet in 1951, but this does not appear to have been studied systematically. Currently, fi rewood is so scarce that dung must be burned as fuel so that it is not available for fertilizer (Chhetri 2006).…”

“…The specifi c goals of this study were: 1) to determine whether elevated As occurs in surface water or groundwater in Mustang Valley, with particular attention to sources of drinking water, 2) to test the fl uvial recharge model by comparing concentrations of As in surface water and groundwater, 3) to test the reductive-dissolution model by comparing As concentrations with Fe, Mn and sulfate concentrations in groundwater, 4) to test the sulfi de-oxidation model by comparing As concentrations with concentrations of sulfate and the transition elements that are normally associated with As, and 5) to determine whether there is spatial clustering of As concentrations. The only previous studies of hydrology or water quality in Mustang Valley have examined major ion chemistry and H, O, C and Sr isotope compositions in streams (France-Lanord et al 1994), bacterial counts in public water taps (Boselli et al 2005), and biological indicators for stream degradation (Boselli et al 2005). This study has built upon previous studies in Mustang Valley in the related fi elds of geomorphology and natural hazards (Fort 1987;Upreti and Yoshida 2005;Fort 2010), tectonics (Colchen et al 1980;Yoshida et al 1984;Colchen 1998Colchen , 1999Garzione et al 2000aGarzione et al , 2000bGarzione et al , 2003Chamlagain and Hayashi 2006) and sedimentology Fort 1985).…”

People, pigs and pollution – Experiences with applying participatory learning and action (PLA) methodology to identify problems of pig-waste management at the village level in Fiji

“…Even in a managed environment, rural water resources may be vulnerable to faecal pollution from the ineffective disposal of animal waste [4]. In Pacific Island countries, animal waste has become a major source of pollution due to increasing numbers of poultry, cattle and pigs.…”