The Specificities of Elite Female Athletes: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Abstract

Female athletes have garnered considerable attention in the last few years as more and more women participate in sports events. However, despite the well-known repercussions of female sex hormones, few studies have investigated the specificities of elite female athletes. In this review, we present the current but still limited data on how normal menstrual phases, altered menstrual phases, and hormonal contraception affect both physical and cognitive performances in these elite athletes. To examine the implicated mechanisms, as well as the potential performances and health risks in this population, we then take a broader multidisciplinary approach and report on the causal/reciprocal relationships between hormonal status and mental and physical health in young (18–40 years) healthy females, both trained and untrained. We thus cover the research on both physiological and psychological variables, as well as on the Athlete Biological Passport used for anti-doping purposes. We consider the fairly frequent discrepancies and summarize the current knowledge in this new field of interest. Last, we conclude with some practical guidelines for eliciting improvements in physical and cognitive performance while minimizing the health risks for female athletes.

Anemia in Sports: A Narrative Review

“…Celiac disease may be a cause of unexplained iron-restricted anemia. Celiac disease is more prevalent in female athletes [ 45 , 46 ] and may be an occult cause of malabsorption contributing to anemia. Moreover, dancers or gymnasts often have traits of hypermobility syndromes, including the Ehlers–Danlos syndrome and others.…”

“…The impact of menstrual cycle phases on athletes’ performance is an important and recently emerged research field related to physical performance [ 54 , 55 ]. Oral contraceptives are also used to control the menstrual cycle and to correct hypermenorrhea [ 45 , 56 ]. Oral contraceptives increase the blood oxidative stress biomarkers and the C reactive protein (CRP) in amateur athlete women [ 56 ].…”

“…Oral contraceptives increase the blood oxidative stress biomarkers and the C reactive protein (CRP) in amateur athlete women [ 56 ]. In female athletes, the physiological parameters cannot be simply extrapolated from the high-level athletes according to age and body weight [ 45 ]. Oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea range from 3.4 to 70% in sports such as dancing and long-distance running [ 45 , 57 ].…”

“…In female athletes, the physiological parameters cannot be simply extrapolated from the high-level athletes according to age and body weight [ 45 ]. Oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea range from 3.4 to 70% in sports such as dancing and long-distance running [ 45 , 57 ]. In endurance athletes, amenorrhea is frequent and is associated with a higher cardiovascular training volume [ 57 ].…”

Prevalence of Prohibited Substance Use and Methods by Female Athletes: Evidence of Gender-Related Differences

“…Last, sex steroid hormones influence cognitive function and emotional processing. According to the “sexually dimorphic” theory, men perform better in visuospatial skills, whereas women outperform men in verbal skills, and the impact of sex hormones at every level of the central nervous system to the muscle itself suggests a potential effect due to gender on balance and motor control (Castanier et al, 2021 ).…”