The Science of Racing against Opponents: Affordance Competition and the Regulation of Exercise Intensity in Head-to-Head Competition

Abstract

Athlete–environment interactions are crucial factors in understanding the regulation of exercise intensity in head-to-head competitions. Previously, we have proposed a framework based on the interdependence of perception and action, which allows us to explore athletic behavior in the more complex pacing situations occurring when athletes need to respond to actions of their opponents. In the present perspective we will further explore whether opponents, crucial external factors in competitive sports, could indeed be perceived as social invitations for action. Decisions regarding how to expend energy over the race are based on internal factors such as the physiological/biomechanical capacity of the athlete in relation to external factors such as those presented by opponents. For example: Is the athlete able to overtake competitors, or not? We present several experimental studies that demonstrate that athletes regulate their exercise intensity differently in head-to-head competition compared to time-trial exercises: Relational athlete-environment aspects seem to outweigh benefits of the individual optimal energy distribution. Also, the behavior of the opponents has been shown to influence pacing strategies of competing athletes, again demonstrating the importance of relational athlete–environment aspects in addition to strictly internal factors. An ecological perspective is presented in which opponents are proposed to present social affordances, and decision-making is conceptualized as a resultant of affordance-competition. This approach will provide novel insights in tactical decision-making and pacing behavior in head-to-head competitions. Future research should not only focus on the athlete's internal state, but also try to understand opponents in the context of the social affordances they provide.

Self-regulation in endurance sports: theory, research, and practice

“…There is research emerging that demonstrates the potential to apply self-regulated learning to endurance performance. This is relevant because in endurance activities, participants constantly make decisions about goal-driven processes such as whether to slow down or speed up based on how they feel physically and emotionally, and based on what is going on in their environment such as weather conditions and behaviours of other participants (Hettinga et al, 2017;Renfree et al, 2014). In terms of self-regulation, it is also important to understand and reflect on what is going on in the environment and, from a social-cognitive perspective, aspects such as modelling (e.g., seeing others succeed) can inform the processes that we engage in to move towards, or away from, a desired state or goal.…”

Racing an Opponent: Alteration of Pacing, Performance, and Muscle-Force Decline but Not Rating of Perceived Exertion

“…In addition, the importance of the interaction of the exerciser and environmental cues has been emphasized recently in the context of pacing. 2,5 Perceptual cues provided by the environment can invite athletes to respond, thereby evoking adaptations of pacing behavior. 2,5 In this sense, an opponent can be perceived as an important environmental cue that represents action possibilities to an athlete in competitive sports.…”

“…2,5 Perceptual cues provided by the environment can invite athletes to respond, thereby evoking adaptations of pacing behavior. 2,5 In this sense, an opponent can be perceived as an important environmental cue that represents action possibilities to an athlete in competitive sports. 5 Indeed, the presence of a virtual opponent has been shown to improve cycling performance [6][7][8] , and the pacing behavior of the virtual opponent has been shown to affect the initial pace of cyclists in laboratory-controlled conditions.…”

“…2,5 In this sense, an opponent can be perceived as an important environmental cue that represents action possibilities to an athlete in competitive sports. 5 Indeed, the presence of a virtual opponent has been shown to improve cycling performance [6][7][8] , and the pacing behavior of the virtual opponent has been shown to affect the initial pace of cyclists in laboratory-controlled conditions. 7 The performance improvement related to the presence of an opponent appears to remain quite stable, regardless of the level of performance of the opponent.…”

Strategy and tactics in sports from an ecological-dynamical-perspective: What is in there for coaches and players?

“…In spite of its importance for tactical decisions, the concept of affordances has only been exploited to a limited extent as far as tactical behavior in sports is concerned. Hettinga, Konings, & Pepping (2017) took up the challenge as they revealed that the pacing behavior in time-trials are mediated by the social affordances presented by their opponents. Therefore, the regulation of exercise intensity in head-to-head competition appeared to be the result of a strong athlete-environment relationship.…”