We propose a Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) which is an amalgamation and extension of the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat, the model of adaptive approaches to competition and the debilitative and facilitative competitive state anxiety model. In the TCTSA we posit that selfefficacy, perceptions of control, and achievement goals determine challenge or threat states in response to competition. Distinct patterns of neuroendocrine and cardiovascular responses are indicative of a challenge or threat state. Increases in epinephrine and cardiac activity, and a decrease in total peripheral vascular resistance (TPR) characterise a challenge state and increases in cortisol, smaller increases in cardiac activity and either no change or an increase in TPR characterise a threat state. Positive and negative emotions can occur in a challenge state while a threat state is associated with negative emotions only. Emotions are perceived as helpful to performance in a challenge state but not in a threat state. Challenge and threat states influence effort, attention, decision-making and physical functioning and accordingly sport performance. The TCTSA provides a framework for practitioners to enhance performance, through developing a challenge state, and encourages researchers to explore the mechanisms underlying performance in competition.Keywords: Challenge; threat; appraisal; emotion; cardiovascular. In proposing the TCTSA we draw on the biopsychosocial (BPS) model of challenge and threat (Blascovich & Mendes, 2000;Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996), the model of adaptive approaches to competition (Skinner & Brewer, 2004) and other related contemporary approaches to understanding athletes' perceptions and experiences of an upcoming competition (e.g., achievement goal theory, interpretation of anxiety symptoms). Although the TCTSA concerns athletes' preparedness for competition, because it explains how athletes respond to an upcoming competition, we also consider how the cognitions, emotions and physiological responses associated with challenge and threat states may influence sport performance. That is, we posit athletes' psychophysiological states before competition will predict, at least partly, performance levels in competition. 4We propose that the TCTSA outlines more fully than existing approaches why athletes may perceive an upcoming competition as either a challenge or threat, how they respond emotionally and physiologically when they do, and how challenge and threat states can influence performance. While the TCTSA draws on existing models, a number of aspects unique to the TCTSA contribute to the literature.Specifically, the TCTSA outlines: how a unique combination of psychological constructs interact to determine challenge and threat states; that high intensity negative emotions can be experienced in a challenge state; how challenge and threat states influence performance through effort, attention, decision-making and physical functioning.Challenge and threat are motivational state...

BackgroundNo literature reviews have systematically identified and evaluated research on the psychological determinants of endurance performance, and sport psychology performance enhancement guidelines for endurance sports are not founded on a systematic appraisal of endurance-specific research.ObjectiveA systematic literature review was conducted to identify practical psychological interventions that improve endurance performance and to identify additional psychological factors that affect endurance performance. Additional objectives were to evaluate the research practices of the included studies, to suggest theoretical and applied implications, and to guide future research.MethodsElectronic databases, forward-citation searches and manual searches of reference lists were used to locate relevant studies. Peer-reviewed studies were included when they chose an experimental or quasi-experimental research design; a psychological manipulation; endurance performance as the dependent variable; and athletes or physically active, healthy adults as participants.ResultsConsistent support was found for using imagery, self-talk and goal setting to improve endurance performance, but it is unclear whether learning multiple psychological skills is more beneficial than learning one psychological skill. The results also demonstrated that mental fatigue undermines endurance performance, and verbal encouragement and head-to-head competition can have a beneficial effect. Interventions that influenced perception of effort consistently affected endurance performance.ConclusionsPsychological skills training could benefit an endurance athlete. Researchers are encouraged to compare different practical psychological interventions, to examine the effects of these interventions for athletes in competition and to include a placebo control condition or an alternative control treatment. Researchers are also encouraged to explore additional psychological factors that could have a negative effect on endurance performance. Future research should include psychological mediating variables and moderating variables. Implications for theoretical explanations for endurance performance and evidence-based practice are described.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0319-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Theory of Challenge and Threat States in Athletes (TCTSA) provides a psychophysiological framework for how athletes anticipate motivated performance situations. The purpose of this review is to discuss how research has addressed the 15 predictions made by the TCTSA, to evaluate the mechanisms underpinning the TCTSA in light of the research that has emerged in the last 10 years, and to inform a revised TCTSA (TCTSA-R). There was support for many of the 15 predictions in the TCTSA, with two main areas for reflection identified: to understand the physiology of challenge and to re-evaluate the concept of resource appraisals. This re-evaluation informs the TCTSA-R, which elucidates the physiological changes, predispositions, and cognitive appraisals that mark challenge and threat states. First, the relative strength of the sympathetic nervous system response is outlined as a determinant of challenge and threat patterns of reactivity and we suggest that oxytocin and neuropeptide Y are also key indicators of an adaptive approach to motivated performance situations and can facilitate a challenge state. Second, although predispositions were acknowledged within the TCTSA, how these may influence challenge and threat states was not specified. In the TCTSA-R, it is proposed that one's propensity to appraise stressors is a challenge that most strongly dictates acute cognitive appraisals. Third, in the TCTSA-R, a more parsimonious integration of Lazarusian ideas of cognitive appraisal and challenge and threat is proposed. Given that an athlete can make both challenge and threat primary appraisals and can have both high or low resources compared to perceived demands, a 2 × 2 bifurcation theory of challenge and threat is proposed. This reflects polychotomy of four states: high challenge, low challenge, low threat, and high threat. For example, in low threat, an athlete can evince a threat state but still perform well so long as they perceive high resources. Consequently, we propose suggestions for research concerning measurement tools and a reconsideration of resources to include social support. Finally, applied recommendations are made based on adjusting demands and enhancing resources.

This study aimed to identify psychological demands that are commonly experienced by endurance athletes so that these demands could inform the design of performanceenhancement psychological interventions for endurance athletes. Focus group interviews were conducted with 30 recreational endurance athletes of various sports (running, cycling, and triathlon), distances, and competitive levels to explore the psychological demands of training, competition preparation, and competition participation. An inductive thematic analysis was used to identify psychological demands that were experienced across sports, distances, and competitive levels. Seven themes captured demands that were commonly experienced away from the competitive environment (time investment and lifestyle sacrifices, commitment to training sessions, concerns about optimising training, and exercise sensations during training), preceding an endurance event (pre-event stressors), or during an event (exercise sensations, optimising pacing, and remaining focused despite adversity). Interventions that could be delivered to recreational athletes, who do not typically have access to a sport psychologist, are suggested. Experimental research examining the efficacy of interventions that help endurance athletes to cope with the reported psychological demands is encouraged.Keywords: cycling, focus groups, qualitative research, running, stressors, triathlon 3 Through this research, we aim to contribute to the design of performance-enhancement 1 psychological interventions for endurance athletes by increasing the understanding of the 2 psychological demands commonly encountered by endurance athletes. Sport psychology 3 professional practice guidelines (Birrer & Morgan, 2010; Simons, 2012; Taylor, 1995) 4 encourage practitioners who are designing a psychological performance-enhancement 5 intervention to target the psychological demands of the sport, in order to optimise the efficacy 6 of the intervention. Although the prominent psychological demands experienced in specific 7 endurance events vary (e.g., Dosil, 2006), there may be demands that are commonly 8 experienced across various endurance sports, competitive distances, and competitive levels. 9Research examining the efficacy of interventions at improving endurance performance could 10 target these common demands, which would provide an evidence base for practitioners 11 working with endurance athletes who compete in various endurance events. In other words, 12 efficacious interventions that target common psychological demands could have a wide 13 application.14 Psychological demands relate to stressors in transactional theories of stress (e.g., 15Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006;Lazarus, 1999). Contemporary transactional theories in 16 sport psychology propose that stress is "an ongoing process that involves individuals 17 transacting with their environment, making appraisals of the situations they find themselves in, 18and endeavouring to cope with any issues that might arise" (Fletcher et al., 2006, p.329)...

1We explored the cognitive and affective components of the Theory of Challenge and Threat 2States in Athletes (TCTSA) using a cross-sectional design. One hundred and seventy-seven proposed relationships with threat rather than challenge states.