The roles of small extracellular vesicles in cancer and immune regulation and translational potential in cancer therapy

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) facilitate the extracellular transfer of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids and mediate intercellular communication among multiple cells in the tumour environment. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are defined as EVs range in diameter from approximately 50 to 150 nm. Tumour-derived sEVs (TDsEVs) and immune cell-derived sEVs have significant immunological activities and participate in cancer progression and immune responses. Cancer-specific molecules have been identified on TDsEVs and can function as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, as well as allergens for TDsEVs-based vaccination. Various monocytes, including but not limited to dendritic cells (DCs), B cells, T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), secrete sEVs that regulate immune responses in the complex immune network with either protumour or antitumour effects. After engineered modification, sEVs from immune cells and other donor cells can provide improved targeting and biological effects. Combined with their naïve characteristics, these engineered sEVs hold great potential as drug carriers. When used in a variety of cancer therapies, they can adjunctly enhance the safety and antitumor efficacy of multiple therapeutics. In summary, both naïve sEVs in the tumour environment and engineered sEVs with effector cargoes are regarded as showing promising potential for use in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics.

A new paradigm for epidermal growth factor receptor expression exists in PTC and NIFTP regulated by microRNAs

“…described a role of EGFR in exosome trafficking, biogenesis and uptake by recipient cells, thereby participating in its own dissemination ( 74 ). Since exosomes are able to transfer various biological molecules including protein, RNA, DNA, and miRNA, they serve as key modulators of intercellular communication in many physiological and pathological conditions ( 75 , 76 ). Therefore, multiple roles of exosomal EGFR in metastasis formation and tumor immunity has been described ( 77 – 79 ).…”

“…However, ALIX did not have a role in sorting of EGF-stimulated EGFR or its targeting to lysosomes for degradation (66). Moreover, ALIX was found to mediate the (75,76). Therefore, multiple roles of exosomal EGFR in metastasis formation and tumor immunity has been described (77-79).…”

microRNAs‐based diagnostic and therapeutic applications in liver fibrosis

“…MSC‐derived cargocytes obtained by large‐scale physical denuclearization retained important intrinsic cellular functions and specifically delivers therapeutic cargo to target tissues through active chemotaxis and endothelial adhesion, and researchers constructed functionalized chimeric apoptotic vesicles (cABs) with natural membranes and modular mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) delivery systems for inflammation regulation (Dou et al, 2020), demonstrating higher tissue specificity (H. Wang et al, 2022). Taken together, engineered EVs with effector cargoes are regarded as showing promising potential for use in disease diagnostics and therapeutics (Qian et al, 2022). While it remains far from ideal for efficient liver fibrosis therapy and further research is necessary to promote the development of engineering EVs‐targeted therapeutics.…”

Extracellular vesicle analysis in supramolecular 3D hydrogels: a proof-of-concept

“…Specifically, the existing literature emphasizes that within the diverse array of extracellular vesicles, small EVs (30-250 nm) [15][16][17][18] are key players in intercellular communication, assuming a crucial role in various pathological conditions, especially cancer metastasis. 19,20 As such, they are broadly investigated as a promising class of EVs from both diagnostic and prognostic perspectives. On the other hand, EV analysis is facing remarkable challenges due to the peculiarities of these bioanalytes, and new methodologies are still needed to complement current technologies in EV analysis.…”