The roles of extracellular vesicles in the immune system

Abstract

The twenty-first century has witnessed major developments in the field of extracellular vesicle (EV) research, including significant steps towards defining standard criteria for the separation and detection of EVs. The recent recognition that EVs have the potential to function as biomarkers or as therapeutic tools has attracted even greater attention to their study. With this progress in mind, an updated comprehensive overview of the roles of EVs in the immune system is timely. This Review summarizes the roles of EVs in basic processes of innate and adaptive immunity, including inflammation, antigen presentation, and the development and activation of B cells and T cells. It also highlights key progress related to deciphering the roles of EVs in antimicrobial defence and in allergic, autoimmune and antitumour immune responses. It ends with a focus on the relevance of EVs to immunotherapy and vaccination, drawing attention to ongoing or recently completed clinical trials that aim to harness the therapeutic potential of EVs.

Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Thyroid Physiology and Diseases: Implications for Diagnosis and Treatment

“…In cancer, tumor-derived EVs have been reported to carry mainly detrimental functions, participating in the development and maintenance of a tumor-promoting microenvironment [ 11 ], but also promoting metastatic niche development at a distance [ 12 ]. They are also implicated in the regulation of immune processes and T-cell dysfunction [ 13 ].…”

The roles of small extracellular vesicles in cancer and immune regulation and translational potential in cancer therapy

“…Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are the generic term for particles naturally released from the cell that are delimited by a lipid bilayer [1]. Classified by the size of EVs, they can also be divided into "small EVs" (sEVs) and "medium/large EVs" (m/lEVs) [2]. The most abundant EVs in biological fluids are sEVs that range in diameter from approximately 50 to 150 nm.…”

“…The most abundant EVs in biological fluids are sEVs that range in diameter from approximately 50 to 150 nm. According to different biogenesis pathways, sEVs are mainly composed of exosomes that are generated from an endosomal origin, as well as some plasma membrane-derived ectosomes and microvesicles [2,3]. They carry a variety of cargoes, including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites, and act as mediators of close and distant intercellular communication in both healthy and disease states, affecting various cellular biological activities [4,5].…”

Regulation of Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Immune Responses against Antigen-Specific Presentation

“…EVs produced from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have anti-inflammatory and tissue-regeneration properties, which may facilitate the development of immunotherapy [ 232 , 233 , 234 , 235 ]. Moreover, the development of novel immunotherapies that utilise EV characteristics, such as easy uptake by phagocytic cells or release from cells near target tissues, is underway [ 236 , 237 ]. In this review, we summarise EV-based vaccine therapies and novel immunotherapies.…”