The Role of Fetal, Infant, and Childhood Nutrition in the Timing of Sexual Maturation

Abstract

Puberty is a crucial developmental stage in the life span, necessary to achieve reproductive and somatic maturity. Timing of puberty is modulated by and responds to central neurotransmitters, hormones, and environmental factors leading to hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis maturation. The connection between hormones and nutrition during critical periods of growth, like fetal life or infancy, is fundamental for metabolic adaptation response and pubertal development control and prediction. Since birth weight is an important indicator of growth estimation during fetal life, restricted prenatal growth, such as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and small for gestational age (SGA), may impact endocrine system, affecting pubertal development. Successively, lactation along with early life optimal nutrition during infancy and childhood may be important in order to set up timing of sexual maturation and provide successful reproduction at a later time. Sexual maturation and healthy growth are also influenced by nutrition requirements and diet composition. Early nutritional surveillance and monitoring of pubertal development is recommended in all children, particularly in those at risk, such as the ones born SGA and/or IUGR, as well as in the case of sudden weight gain during infancy. Adequate macro and micronutrient intake is essential for healthy growth and sexual maturity.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome in Insulin-Resistant Adolescents with Obesity: The Role of Nutrition Therapy and Food Supplements as a Strategy to Protect Fertility

“…Interestingly, small-for-gestational age (SGA) babies (defined as neonates born with a weight lower that two standard deviations below the mean or <10th percentile for the gestational age) are considered to be at risk of hyperandrogenism, IR, PP and PCOS. Therefore, pubertal development monitoring is recommended [29].…”

“…The mechanisms behind this association remain poorly known, and it is agreed that further studies should address the common origin among these conditions (during fetal life) rather than the direct impact later in life [29,30].…”

Precocious Puberty and Covid-19 Into Perspective: Potential Increased Frequency, Possible Causes, and a Potential Emergency to Be Addressed

“…Nutrition is a known driver of sexual maturation ( 18 ). In malnourished adopted children a significant weight increase is well known to trigger precocious puberty ( 19 – 21 ), however, although during the pandemic BMI has generally increased because of reduced physical activity often this increase is not so significant ( 1 , 2 ), and above all, none of these girls were malnourished before the pandemic.…”

Diet-Induced Hypothalamic Inflammation, Phoenixin, and Subsequent Precocious Puberty

“…During the last 15 years a 12-month decline in the mean age at the onset of breast development in Danish girls [ 6 ] has been found, while similar findings are reported in both Greek and Turkish populations [ 7 , 8 ]. Apart from genetic factors [ 9 ], it seems that environmental factors such as obesity and diet have an effect on the aforementioned trend [ 10 ].…”

“…According to a meta-analysis [ 26 ], high energy intake was significantly associated with early menarche. However, the research into the potential association between a high-glycaemic-index diet and/or a high-fat diet has not yet led to conclusive results [ 10 ]. The aim of this review is to explore how a high-glycaemic-index diet and/or a high-fat diet could have an association with precocious puberty in either girls or boys.…”