The Role of Extracellular Vesicles from Human Macrophages on Host-Pathogen Interaction

Abstract

The nano-sized membrane enclosed extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by virtually all cell types play an essential role in intercellular communication via delivering bio-molecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other molecules to recipient cells. By mediating an active and steady-state cell-to-cell communication, EVs contribute to regulating and preserving cellular homeostasis. On the other hand, EVs can also spread pathogen-derived molecules during infections, subverting the host immune responses during infections and thus worsening pathophysiological processes. In recent years, the biological functioning of EVs has become a widespread research field in basic and clinical branches of medical sciences due to their potential role in therapeutic applications for several diseases. This review aims to summarize the main recent findings regarding the implication of EVs shed by human macrophages (MΦ-EVs) and how they can modulate the host immune response to control or increase the damage caused by infectious agents. We will also present the methods used to describe MΦ-EVs, as well as the potential of these EVs as disease diagnostic tools for some human pathogens. We believe that an in-depth understanding of the host–pathogen interactions mediated by MΦ-EVs may trigger the development of innovative therapeutic strategies against infectious diseases.

The Role of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in the Immune Response to Pathogens, and Therapeutic Opportunities

“…Other EVs produced by human cells include autophagic EVs, stressed EVs, matrix vesicles, and exomeres [ 16 ]. In the context of infectious diseases, exosomes are mainly responsible for host–pathogen interactions [ 25 ].…”

Exploring the Potential of Exosomes as Biomarkers in Tuberculosis and Other Diseases

“…However, the biochemical, immunological, and genetic methods used for the detection and identification of bacterial products in biofluids are not always accurate; therefore, there is a need for the identification of intracellular pathogens or host-related deregulated molecules in secretory vesicles. This can be achieved by exosomes that are secreted by host cells, such as macrophages, which contain perturbed cargo due to infection and play a pertinent role in host–pathogen interactions [ 14 , 15 ]. Exosomes released by macrophages infected with Mtb or Mycobacterium bovis contain pathogen-derived antigens, and, as a result, these microvesicles can trigger innate as well as acquired immunological responses [ 16 , 17 , 18 ] and induce naïve cells to release proinflammatory cytokines.…”

Proteome and immune responses of extracellular vesicles derived from macrophages infected with the periodontal pathogen Tannerella forsythia

“…For instance, macrophages, which are immune cells that sense pathogen invasion and initiate innate immune responses by releasing various inflammatory mediators. EVs derived from macrophages infected with pathogens may carry immunostimulatory molecules that induce inflammatory responses in recipient cells (Arteaga‐Blanco & Bou‐Habib, 2021 ). In addition, bacterial EVs can cause systemic inflammatory responses because bacterial EVs easily spread throughout host tissues through the bloodstream and carry bacterial virulence factors (Bittel et al., 2021 ; Villard et al., 2021 ).…”