The role of attention during encoding in implicit and explicit memory.

Mulligan, Neil W.

doi:10.1037/0278-7393.24.1.27

Cited by 175 publications

(237 citation statements)

References 130 publications

(322 reference statements)

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“…Other studies have indicated that divided attention reduces priming to a far lesser extent than explicit memory (e.g., Rajaram et al 2001). These relationships concern implicit memory for perceptual stimulus attributes (perceptual priming), whereas conceptual priming is reduced by divided attention to a similar extent as explicit memory (Mulligan 1998;Light et al 2000). Moreover, behavioral estimates of explicit familiarity are reduced by divided attention, but to a lesser extent than estimates of explicit recollection (Yonelinas 2001).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 95%

“…In prior studies, divided attention during encoding has been found to disproportionately influence explicit memory compared to implicit memory. Indeed, priming is often unaffected by divided attention despite marked reductions in explicit memory (e.g., Mulligan 1998). Other studies have indicated that divided attention reduces priming to a far lesser extent than explicit memory (e.g., Rajaram et al 2001).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…We utilized kaleidoscope stimuli such that verbal encoding and retrieval strategies that typically foster response confidence and retrieval awareness were ineffective. To potentially implicate explicit memory, attentional resources during encoding were manipulated, based on prior findings that reduced attention leads to reduced explicit memory, including both recollection, wherein pertinent details from initial stimulus presentation are retrieved, and familiarity, wherein a feeling of recognition occurs without specific episodic retrieval (Mulligan 1998;Rajaram et al 2001;Yonelinas 2001;Curran 2004). Although it might be argued that we used atypical recognition testing circumstances, the properties of our memory tests were similar to those of recognition tests often given to nonhuman animals; stimuli were nearly meaningless and not likely to be remembered using verbal strategies.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Accurate forced-choice recognition without awareness of memory retrieval

Voss¹,

2008

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Recognition confidence and the explicit awareness of memory retrieval commonly accompany accurate responding in recognition tests. Memory performance in recognition tests is widely assumed to measure explicit memory, but the generality of this assumption is questionable. Indeed, whether recognition in nonhumans is always supported by explicit memory is highly controversial. Here we identified circumstances wherein highly accurate recognition was unaccompanied by hallmark features of explicit memory. When memory for kaleidoscopes was tested using a two-alternative forced-choice recognition test with similar foils, recognition was enhanced by an attentional manipulation at encoding known to degrade explicit memory. Moreover, explicit recognition was most accurate when the awareness of retrieval was absent. These dissociations between accuracy and phenomenological features of explicit memory are consistent with the notion that correct responding resulted from experience-dependent enhancements of perceptual fluency with specific stimuli-the putative mechanism for perceptual priming effects in implicit memory tests. This mechanism may contribute to recognition performance in a variety of frequently-employed testing circumstances. Our results thus argue for a novel view of recognition, in that analyses of its neurocognitive foundations must take into account the potential for both (1) recognition mechanisms allied with implicit memory and (2) recognition mechanisms allied with explicit memory.An important principle in memory research is that there are characteristic behavioral, cognitive, subjective, and neural features that set explicit memory apart from other expressions of memory (Gabrieli 1998;Squire 2004;Paller et al. 2008). Explicit memory tests are those wherein direct reference is made to prior learning events, such as when subjects deliberately discriminate repeat from novel items in a recognition test. Memory measured by such tests is referred to as explicit memory. Hallmark features of explicit memory include the awareness of memory retrieval and confidence in memory judgments. Explicit memory can be contrasted with another form of memory, implicit memory, which does not require the realization that memory has influenced behavior. Specialized tests in which no reference is made to prior learning episodes are commonly used to measure implicit memory. Tests of perceptual priming, for example, are used to measure implicit memory for physical stimulus features, and perceptual priming with visual stimuli is thought to be supported by repetition-induced enhancements in neural processing fluency within visual cortex (Wiggs and Martin 1998;Schacter et al. 2007).A central emphasis of contemporary memory research has been to determine how explicit memory and implicit memory are related. Many researchers have proposed that recognition may derive partly from repetition-based perceptual fluency, the same mechanism that mediates perceptual priming (e.g., Jacoby and Dallas 1981;Johnston et al. 1991;Verfaellie and Cermak 1...

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 95%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 99%

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Accurate forced-choice recognition without awareness of memory retrieval

Voss¹,

2008

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“…For example, Mulligan and Hartman (1996) demonstrated that the presence ofa digit-detection task during encoding ofwords greatly reduced later memory for the words as measured by a conceptual implicit memory test (category exemplar production) and two explicit tests (category cued recall and word-fragment cued recall) but not by a perceptual implicit memory test (word-fragment completion). Mulligan (1998) showed that 267 …”

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confidence: 99%

Perceptual implicit memory requires attentional encoding

Crabb

Dark

1999

Memory & Cognition

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Perceptual implicit memory for previously attended and unattended words was measured either in a word-stem completion task or in a perceptual fluency (perceptual identification) task Subjects (N = 144) first engaged in a focused attention task in which they were to identify one of two words presented for 100, 200, or 300 msec. Words were classified as attended if they were reported during the focused attention task and unattended if they were not. Results for both implicit memory tests indicated reliable perceptual implicit memory for attended words but not for unattended words, regardless of focused attention exposure duration. The results indicate that perceptual implicit memory tasks reflect attentional encoding processes; that is, words must undergo attentional encoding if they are to affect performance on a later perceptual implicit memory test.Implicit memory is the phenomenon in which previously encoded information affects performance on some task without the individual's consciously recollecting the information. This nonconscious, automatic retrieval contrasts with the conscious, effortful retrieval that occurs during an explicit memory test such as recognition or recall. A number of different implicit memory tests have been identified, and they have been classified into two broad categories: conceptual and perceptual. Category exemplar production, general knowledge tests, and spelling tasks are considered to be conceptual implicit memory tests; perceptual fluency (also termed perceptual identification), word-stem completion, and word-fragment completion are considered to be perceptual implicit memory tests (e.g., Roediger, 1990;Roediger, Weldon, & Challis, 1989). Conceptual implicit memory tests often are affected by encoding variables that affect explicit memory tests, whereas perceptual implicit memory tests are not affected by these variables.Attentional processing at encoding is assumed to be necessary to produce explicit memory for the encoded information (see, e.g., Fisk & Schneider, 1984;Rock & Gutman, 1981;Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). The necessity of attentional processing at encoding also has been demonstrated for conceptual implicit memory tests (e.g., Mulligan, 1998;Mulligan & Hartman, 1996). It has beenThe 100-msec conditions of this study were presented at the April, 1996, meeting of the Iowa Academy of Science, and the entire study was presented at the May, 1997, meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association. We thank Nelson Cowan, William Johnston, and Neil Mulligan for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. We also thank Elizabeth Andre, Alison Bateson, Kelli Bendickson, Karla Benson, Katie Bock, Amanda Easton, Dana Hartwigsen, Brenda Jacobus, Patricia Schmidt, Molly White, and Steve Willis for their assistance in collecting the data. Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to either author at the Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-3180 (e-mail: bcrabb@iastate. edu or vjdark@iastate.edu).argued, however, that whereas atte...

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“…Divided attention during study serves to degrade later episodic memory. 11 However, we found that subjects performed better after studying with divided attention than with full attention, again implicating visual fluency rather than episodic memory. In addition, these novel effects were only obtained when strategic episodic retrieval processing was limited via response signals during the recognition test, indicating that relatively automatic decisions were essential.…”

Section: Article Addendummentioning

confidence: 58%