The re‐emergence of the bed bug as a nuisance pest: implications of resistance to the pyrethroid insecticides

Abstract

A global resurgence of bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) has led to renewed scientific interest in these insects. The current bed bug upsurge appears to have started almost synchronously in the late 1990 s in Europe, the U.S.A. and Australia. Several factors have led to this situation, with resistance to applied insecticides making a significant contribution. With a growing number of insecticides (DDT, carbamates, organophosphates etc.) being no longer available as a result of regulatory restrictions, the mainstay chemistry used for bed bug control over the past few decades has been the pyrethroid insecticides. With reports of increasing tolerance to pyrethroids leading to control failures on the rise, containing and eradicating bed bugs is proving to be a difficult task. Consequently, several recent studies have focused on determining the mode of action of pyrethroid resistance in bed bug populations sourced from different locations. Correct identification of the factor(s) responsible for the increasing resistance is critical to the development of effective management strategies, which need to be based, wherever possible, on firm scientific evidence. Here we review the literature on this topic, highlighting the mechanisms thought to be involved and the problems currently faced by pest control professionals in dealing with a developing pandemic.

A Door-to-Door Survey of Bed Bug (Cimex lectularius) Infestations in Row Homes in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

“…The stigma surrounding bed bugs may cause some infested households to not report their infestations. 28 In addition, because of the cryptic nature of the insects and varying response to bites by humans, 29 residents may be unaware of an existing infestation. 2 In a recent study of bed bug infestations in a high-rise building, only half of the residents with infested households knew about their infestation.…”

Prevention, identification, and treatment options for the management of bed bug infestations

“…Although approved insecticides from different chemical groups are often required for treatment, they are limited in availability and insecticide resistance is well known (Adelman et al 2011;Romero et al 2007). Pyrethroid insecticides are most prevalent, but there are increasing issues with resistance, lack of residual activity, and dispersion of bed bug populations when exposed to sub-lethal levels (Davies et al 2012;Mamidala et al 2012;Tawatsin et al 2011). Diatomaceous earth dehydrates bed bugs, but it takes days or weeks to kill them, and it cannot be applied as widely as other products (Benoit et al 2009b;Wang et al 2009a).…”

Bed Bug Detection: Current Technologies and Future Directions

“…Filter paper disks were treated with acetone and allowed to dry, and live bed bugs served as negative and positive controls, respectively. Treated paper disks, cast skins, and live bed bugs were hidden in offices and open spaces from 60 to 300 ft 2 , and the locations in each trial were unknown to both the dog and the handler. The dog was able to detect live bed bugs and all concentrations of alarm pheromone, including 10 pg/cm 2 (the lowest concentration tested) ( Table 2).…”

“…Global bed bug infestations were common into the 1930s and 1940s until the advent of synthetic pesticides that were commonly used to control bed bugs and other urban pests. From World War II to the 1960s, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) proved to be an inexpensive, toxic, and effective residual treatment against many arthropods, including bed bugs, 1,2 and bed bugs were thought to be eliminated from human habitations in the United States. 3,4 In the past two decades, populations of C. lectularius have increased in North America, Europe, and Australia.…”

“…Explanations for this resurgence include but are not limited to increased international travel, changes in pest control practices for other urban pests, increased trade in secondhand furniture, and widespread bed bug resistance to most commercially available pesticides registered for use against this blood-sucking insect. 2,9,10 Public health importance. All stages of the bed bugs feed on blood and require a blood meal to molt (nymphs) and reproduce (adults).…”