The Psychophysics of Binocular Vision

Impact of simulated three-dimensional perception on precision of depth judgements, technical performance and perceived workload in laparoscopy

“…Conventional two‐dimensional (2D) displays do not provide stereopsis, and laparoscopic surgeons must rely on indirect visual cues such as shadows, textures and relative colour differences to extract depth information. These indirect cues do not provide a compelling or immediate perception of 3D volume and may not be appreciated by inexperienced viewers.…”

“…The impression of depth generated by a given disparity in a 3D display changes with viewing distance, which can result in distortions of depth relationships in the display. As an individual's ability to perceive a given distance between two objects is affected by viewing distance, studies comparing 3D with 2D laparoscopic displays must also take account of the viewing distance of their participants.…”

The impact of three-dimensional imaging on polyp detection during colonoscopy: a proof of concept study

“…Minimally elevated or depressed lesions that are more likely to contain high-grade dysplasia or invasive carcinoma1 can go undetected during 2D colonoscopy,2 3 in which endoscopists rely on indirect depth cues such as shadows, texture and colour gradients within 2D images to navigate and inspect the 3D space within the colon 4. Combined with the tendency of minimally elevated lesions to inhabit the right colon, these factors may explain the relative ineffectiveness of colonoscopy in preventing right-sided versus left-sided colon cancer 5–7…”

“…Indirect depth cues from 2D displays do not produce a compelling perception of volume and are usually not appreciated by inexperienced viewers 4. A recent analysis showed that inexperienced endoscopists had a 3.5% detection rate of minimally elevated lesions during their first 200 colonoscopies, which increased to a detection rate of only 7.4% after their 1000th colonoscopy subsequent to training 10.…”

Effect of 3-Dimensional Vision on Surgeons Using the da Vinci Robot for Laparoscopy

“…Indirect depth cues are often degraded in operating conditions in which precise depth perception is critical. 2 Examples include operating in limited light, such as in the depths of a narrow pelvis, and in low-contrast conditions, such as within dark, blood-stained tissue.…”