The Predictors of High Dietary Salt Intake among Hypertensive Patients in Iran

Reyhani, Parvin; Azabdaftari, Fariba; Ebrahimi-Mameghani, Mehrangiz; Asghari‐Jafarabadi, Mohammad; Shokrvash, Behjat

doi:10.1155/2020/6748696

Cited by 8 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 26 publications

(28 reference statements)

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“…In this study, rural adults consumed more salt than urban adults, which could be attributed to the inclusion of salt in rural meals, particularly among men, and a lack of information about the association between excessive salt intake and related diseases, particularly hypertension. 66 Furthermore, our estimations reveal that salt intake is high in our provinces and varies by province. One possible explanation is that the individuals in these regions have varying dietary patterns and food diversity due to Iran's wide size and diverse population groupings.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 70%

Mean population salt intake in Iran: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

Pourkhajoei

Yazdi‐Feyzabadi

Amiresmaeili

et al. 2022

Health Science Reports

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Introduction High salt intake has been connected with the increase of many non‐communicable diseases (NCDs) worldwide. Like other middle‐income countries, Iran is experiencing a considerable increase in NCDs, necessitating attempts to reduce dietary salt intake. As in Iran there is uncertainty about the existing rate of salt intake. The present study aimed to estimate mean salt intake of Iranian population by systematically reviewing existing literature. Methods This research is a systematic review and meta‐analysis (PRISMA Protocol) of published article data, with no time constraint until the end of 2020, to estimate mean salt intake of Iranian population. A comprehensive literature search was performed on international databases of Medline, Science Direct, PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Springer, Online Library Wiley, Web of Science, Cochrane, and Google Scholar and domestic data bases of Iranmedex, Magiran, SID, and Medlib. Subgroup analysis was conducted for gender, region, measurement method, and age group. Research homogeneity was evaluated by I 2 statistic. We reviewed all studies which met inclusion criteria. STATA Ver.13.1 was used to perform meta‐analysis. Results Meta‐analysis of data from 32 studies showed that the average salt intake in all ages was 9.674 g/day (95% CI, 9.033–10.316 g/day). The lowest estimation of salt intake was 9.33 g/day (95% CI, 7.75–10.91 g/day) which was estimated from studies which used point collection method, and the highest estimate using the food reminder questionnaire was 10.41 g/day (95% CI, 8.49–12.34 g/day). Also, the average weight salt intake for men over 18 years old in different cities was 10.39 g/day (95% CI, 9.01–11.78 g/day), for women over 18 years in different cities 9.52 g/day (95% CI, 8.42–10.62 g/day), and children and adolescents was estimated at 5.664 g/day (95% CI, 2.91–8.41 g/day). Conclusion The intake of salt in the Iranian population is near twice the WHO recommendation. Therefore, it is necessary to consider effective strategies and interventions to reduce dietary salt intake in Iran as a health priority.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 70%

Mean population salt intake in Iran: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

Pourkhajoei

Yazdi‐Feyzabadi

Amiresmaeili

et al. 2022

Health Science Reports

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“…These findings are inconsistent with previous findings [ 12 , 13 , 40 ]. In a study conducted among patients, the behavior of adding salt during cooking was more common among women while adding salt during eating was among men [ 16 ]. According to Anderson, in traditional societies, adding salt is more common than in nontraditional societies during cooking and eating [ 21 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Evaluating salt intake behaviors was done specifically using two questions about adding salt during food preparation process and adding salt while eating. Measurement of salt intake was determined on the basis of a home quantitative scale, one teaspoon (tsp) (equivalent to 5 g) adapted to international standards [ 16 , 36 ].…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Adding salt during preparing, cooking, and eating food or consuming foods high in salt result in excessive salt intake [ 16 – 20 ]. The pattern of salt intake in industrial societies is different from traditional societies [ 21 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…According to the available evidence, the salt intake in Iran is 2–3 times more than the normal allowance [ 27 – 31 ]. Lack of knowledge about the recommended amount of salt intake [ 16 , 31 ] is one of the predictors of adding excessive salt during preparing and eating food among healthy people as well as patients with hypertension [ 16 , 29 – 31 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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The Magnitude of Salt Intake Behaviors and Its Predictors among Saqez Urban Population of Kurdistan District in Iran: A Cross-Sectional Study

Khoram

Jafarabadi

Ebrahimi-Mameghani

et al. 2022

International Journal of Hypertension

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Background. Controlling and reducing salt intake are one of the solutions to overcome hypertension. This study aimed at determining the predictors related to salt control methods in Saqez urban population. Methods and Materials. In the present cross-sectional study, the sample population was randomly selected through cluster sampling. Data collection was performed using valid questionnaires, demographic, family economic status, knowledge, perception, intention, salt intake behaviors, and salt control methods, along with measuring body mass index (BMI) and hypertension levels. Descriptive, analytical statistical methods and multivariate logistic regression analysis were used to determine the predictors of desirable salt control methods. The variables of sex, age, family economic status, knowledge, perception, perceived social support, self-efficacy, and intention were analyzed as independent variables. Data analysis was performed using SPSS software version 24 at a significance level of 0.05. Results. Out of 766 participants, 73% were women, with mean (M) 32.83, standard deviation (SD) 9.52 years, and 77.2% were married. There were significant sex differences in employment ( P = 0.01 ) and economic status ( P = 0.016 ). The M (SD) of blood pressure (systolic/diastolic) was 110.65 (0.0212) ( P = 0.441 ). The salt intake control methods between men and women did not show significant differences ( P = 0.368 ). Among totally 88.5%, 87.7% men and 88.9% women followed desirable behaviors. The predictors that determine the adoption of salt control methods were sex (man) (OR = 0.71, 95% CI (0.38–1.29)), age (OR = 1.02, 95% CI = (0.99–1.05)), SES/FAS (medium, high level) (OR = 1.37, 95% CI = (0.754–2.47); OR = 0.46, 95% CI = (0.047–4.55)), blood pressure (OR = 1.33, 95% CI = (0.16–11.23)), knowledge (have) (OR = 1.01, 95% CI = (0.39–1.63)), intent to reduce salt (OR = 1.047, 95% CI = (1.03–1.06)), perceived salt reduction importance (OR = 1.02, 95% CI = (1.01–1.04)), perceived emotional support (health staff) (OR = 1.02, 95% CI = (1.01–1.04)), media (OR = 1.01, 95% CI = 0.99–1.02), perceived practical support (spouse) (OR = 1.02, 95% CI = 0.99–1.04)), and perceived self-efficacy (OR = 1.01, 95% CI = (0.99–1.03)). Conclusion. The support of health staff and spouse seems to be effective in controlling the salt intake behaviors of healthy individuals. In parallel with the development and change of people’s lifestyles, new approaches (legal and services) for salt control based on the support of media and social media were expected.

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Frequency of adding salt at the table and risk of incident cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a prospective cohort study

Chen

Liu

et al. 2022

BMC Med

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Background Adding salt at the table is a prevalent eating habit, but its long-term relationship with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality remains unclear. We evaluated the associations of adding salt at the table with the risk of incident CVD and all-cause mortality. Methods Among 413,109 middle- and old-aged adults without cancer or CVD, all participants reported the frequency of adding salt at the table at baseline. The associations between adding salt at the table and incident CVD (the composite endpoint of coronary heart disease, stroke, heart failure, and CVD deaths) and all-cause mortality were investigated using Cox proportional hazards models. Results Of the study population, the mean age was 55.8 years and 45.5% were men; 44.4% reported adding salt at the table; 4.8% reported always adding salt at the table. During a median follow-up of 12 years, there were 37,091 incident CVD cases and 21,293 all-cause deaths. After adjustment for demographic, lifestyle, and cardiometabolic risk factors, the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for participants who always added salt at the table versus never/rarely added salt at the table were 1.21 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16-1.26) for CVD, 1.19 (95%CI: 1.05–1.35) for CVD mortality, and 1.22 (95%CI: 1.16–1.29) for all-cause mortality, respectively. Conclusions In this prospective cohort study, a higher frequency of adding salt at the table was associated with a greater risk of incident CVD and mortality. Our findings support the benefits of restricting the habit of adding salt at the table in promoting cardiovascular health.

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The Predictors of High Dietary Salt Intake among Hypertensive Patients in Iran

Cited by 8 publications

References 26 publications

Mean population salt intake in Iran: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

Mean population salt intake in Iran: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

The Magnitude of Salt Intake Behaviors and Its Predictors among Saqez Urban Population of Kurdistan District in Iran: A Cross-Sectional Study

Frequency of adding salt at the table and risk of incident cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: a prospective cohort study

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