This article defines personal space and distinguishes it from its companion research areas. It then reviews and evaluates current personal space theories and measurement techniques. The stop-distance and unobtrusive techniques appear best for experimental and naturalistic studies, respectively. If one accepts findings based only on the strongest measurement techniques, considerable reevaluation of research on personal space appears necessary. Only age, physical or psychological situation, stigmatizing conditions, and psychological disorders hold up as factors producing differences in personal space. Other firm findings are that flight or withdrawal results from intrusions and that culturally appropriate interpersonal spacings enhance liking and message persuasiveness.More research is needed on theory construction, on comparative evaluation of the various measurement techniques, on specification of the three-dimensional shape of personal space, on specification of the intrusion-discomfort function, on the flexibility of personal space, and on the subjective experience of personal space.This article is organized first to delineate and define personal space and then to evaluate existing personal space theories and measurement techniques. Relevant personal space studies are then tallied as a background for future investigations.
Delineating Personal SpaceResearch on human use of space burgeoned following the popular ethological writings of Calhoun (1962), Ardrey (1966), and Lorenz (1967 and the equally popular human investigations by Hall (1966) andSommer (1969). Even prior to the appearance of these works Sommer (1959, p. 248) had distinguished personal space from territorial behavior along the following lines: (a) Personal space is portable whereas territoryThe author thanks Doris Entwisle for encouraging and assisting the preparation of this article. The support of Canada Council Fellowship W75-2640 is also gratefully acknowledged.