The Panic to Leave: Economic Crisis and the “New Emigration” from Ecuador

Abstract

Prior to the late 1990s, Ecuadorian international migration was directed primarily toward the United States. Of the estimated 400,000 Ecuadorians living in the United States, most are concentrated in metropolitan New York and many hail from the south–central highlands of Cañar and Azuay Provinces. In the mid– to late–1990s, Ecuador entered a political and economic crisis just as clandestine transportation to the United States became increasingly expensive and dangerous. Within two years Ecuadorian migration diversified radically and a “new emigration” formed. Many thousands of Ecuadorians from throughout the country migrated to Europe, mostly Spain, but also to France, Italy, and The Netherlands. Prior to 1998, few Ecuadorians lived in Europe, but now, Ecuadorians are the largest immigrant group in Madrid and one of the largest in Spain. The migrant stream was led by women and composed of people from a variety of ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds. Ecuadorians find themselves working in a variety of services (especially women) and negotiating a volatile, even hostile, social, and political environment. This “new emigration” has numerous implications for Ecuadorian families, the economy, and the nation–state. Understanding the implications requires a comparative approach that examines at least three aspects of the new emigration: the role of gender, the importance of transnational ties and connections, and the emerging roles of state and non–state actors in the formalization of migration.

Crossing the border: Self-selection, earnings and individual migration decisions

“…Some relevant papers in this area are : Jokisch and Pribilsky (2002), Bertoli (2010), Gratton (2007), Jácome (2004) or Bertoli, Fernández-Huertas Moraga, and Ortega (2010).…”

“…In contrast, Ecuadorians had been migrating to the US for several decades. Most of 30 the Ecuadorians that had settled in the US came from two poor regions: Cañar and Azuay (see, for example, Jokisch and Pribilsky (2002) or Bertoli (2010)). Bertoli (2010), using only Ecuadorian data, shows the relevance of these networks in explaining migration patterns to the US.…”

“…This is puzzling given the large difference in per capita incomes between the two destinations 1 and the existence of pre-crisis Ecuadorian migration networks in the US but not in Spain (Jokisch and Pribilsky (2002)). Thus this episode poses a challenging test for any income-maximizing theory of migration.…”

“…First, the earnings of the 16 The lower employment rates for female Ecuadorians in the US, relative to Spain, can be probably traced back to the larger share of tied movers among the women who migrated to the US. Jokisch and Pribilsky (2002), Sánchez (2004) and Bertoli (2010) document the importance of family reunification for Ecuadorian migrants in the US. 17 It is well known that the college premium among Spanish-born individuals in Spain is lower than, for instance, among US-born individuals in the US.…”

Diaspora and Transnationalism : Concepts, Theories and Methods

“…Many would regard Italy, or their local receiving context, as little more than 'the place where I work hard' to save money to send back and to lay the foundations for a future better life at home. Though arguably related to a time factor -most Ecuadorian emigration to Europe having occurred only within the last decade (Jokisch & Pribilsky 2002) -this finding is not without practical import.…”