The occurrence and levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in African environments—a systematic review

PAH Quantification and Estimated Carcinogenic Risks at Selected Fuel Stations in Tamale Metropolis, Ghana

“…Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds occurring naturally in resources such as crude oil, gasoline and coal which are introduced into the environment especially through incomplete combustion of organic substances (CDC, 2009). PAHs can be commonly identified in every part of the environment; from soil media, air mixtures, and water sources, and with their traces found in various food products, thereby characterising them as ubiquitous chemicals in the environment (Ofori et al, 2020).…”

“…PAH congeners having four or more benzene rings are categorised as High Molecular Weight (HMW) PAHs, whereas those possessing two to three benzene rings are categorised as Low Molecular Weight (LMW). Some examples of LMW PAHs include Fluorene, Anthracene, Naphthalene, Phenanthrene, while other congeners such as Indeno [1,2,3-cd]pyrene, Chrysene, Pyrene, Benzo[a]pyrene, and Benz [a] anthracene and are described as HMW PAHs (Stogiannidis & Laane, 2015;Ofori et al, 2020). Law et al (2002) noted that the LMW PAHs stay less longer in the environment due to their high volatility, and their low ability to dissolve in water.…”

“…In Africa, PAH emissions from Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo ranked 4 th and 8 th respectively considering the worldwide view in a report provided by Zhang and Tao (2009) in 2004. One of the reasons that put Nigeria as one of the top countries contributing to the global PAH pollution was the frequent incidents of oil pollution occurring in the Niger Delta (Ofori et al, 2020). In Africa, a high number of studies have been done in assessing the occurrence and concentration levels of PAHs in various environmental samples as well as the risks they pose to public health.…”

“…In Africa, a high number of studies have been done in assessing the occurrence and concentration levels of PAHs in various environmental samples as well as the risks they pose to public health. Most of the studies have focused on PAH pollution in agricultural soils, street soils, smoked fish and meat, food items, indoor and outdoor air, water bodies, among others (Ofori et al, 2020). However, only one study has been identified to focus on PAH pollution in fuel filling stations by assessing the levels of PAH pollution in the Calabar Metropolis of Nigeria (Nganje et al 2007).…”

PM2.5 chemical composition and geographical origin of air masses in Cape Town, South Africa

“…Various indoor and outdoor air pollutants are linked in epidemiology studies to the symptoms, hospital admissions and development of numerous health outcomes such as asthma (Fan et al 2016), cardiovascular disease (Cesaroni et al 2014;Wang et al 2015;Münzel et al 2018), skin diseases (Balmes 2019), birth outcomes (Li et al 2019), sperm quality (Lafuente et al 2016), type 1 and 2 diabetes (Ritz et al 2019;Howard 2019), lung cancer (Lipfert andWyzga 2019, Hamra et al 2014)-even with the spread and increase of Covid-19's morbidity and mortality (Bilal et al 2020;Comunian et al 2020; Rodríguez-Urrego and Rodríguez-Urrego 2020) and other disease mortality (Fajersztajn et al 2017;Liu et al 2019;Orellano et al 2020). Most of these epidemiology studies were conducted in the developed world and very few in Africa (Ostro et al 2018; Rodríguez-Urrego and Rodríguez-Urrego 2020, Orellano et al 2020;Liu et al 2019;Ofori et al 2020, Katoto et al 2019Wichmann and Voyi 2012;Coker and Kizito 2018;Lokotola et al 2020).…”