The nature and nurture of social development: The role of 5-HTTLPR and gene–parenting interactions.

Abstract

Social skills are traditionally viewed as acquired through social environments including parenting. However, biopsychosocial models highlight the importance of genetic influences and gene-environment interactions (GϫEs) in child development. Extant GϫE investigations often fail to account for developmental changes in the phenotype or rigorously assess the social environment using observational measures. The present study prospectively assessed 110 children (44.5% female) and their parents to explore biologically plausible independent and interactive associations of the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and observed positive and negative parenting in prediction of (a) initial levels of social skills at school entry (age 6 years) and (b) developmental changes in social skills across the early school years (ages 6 -9 years). Overall, the SS (vs. SL/LL) 5-HTTLPR genotype inversely predicted social skills across all domains, although parenting behavior moderated these associations wherein putative GϫE effects differed by developmental timing and social skills domain. Positive parenting positively predicted concurrent (age 6) overall social skills for children with SL/LL genotypes, but not the SS genotype. However, for the SS group only, age 6 positive parenting positively predicted prospective growth in social responsibility, although negative parenting positively predicted growth in social cooperation. Findings suggest that 5-HTTLPR may signal differential sensitivities to parenting styles and patterns of social development, which may help to inform targeted intervention approaches to enhance person-environment fit.

Serotonergic sensitivity alleles moderate relations between attachment security at age three and socioemotional competence at age five

“…Differences in both amygdala activation and amygdala‐PFC connectivity by allelic variation are observed not only when children were exposed to negative cues but also positive cues—effects that became stronger with age (Canli & Lesch, 2007; Gilman et al., 2015; Hariri et al., 2002; Way & Taylor, 2010; Williams et al., 2009; Wiggins et al., 2014; see also Moore & Depue, 2016; Rabinowitz & Drabick, 2017). In one recent study, 5‐HTTLPR × Parenting interactions predicted children's social skills, with ss carriers showing more social responsibility when exposed to positive parenting (Caplan et al., 2019).…”

“…The l‐allele may also be related to punishment insensitivity and risk for psychopathy (Glenn, 2011). In one such study, school‐age children with ss alleles showed greater assertion and self‐control than children with ls or ll alleles at age six, but children with ss alleles were more likely to display sharp declines in those social skills than others from age six to age nine (Caplan et al., 2019). That may be because children with ss alleles are more sensitive to social environments.…”

“…Traditionally, researchers calculated odds ratios for multiple models to select the best model, but Horita and Kaneko (2015) suggest that researchers choose the best model before calculating odds ratios. Given that children with two minor alleles on serotonin genes are likely to display greater joint effects of gene and environment interaction in developing social skills (Caplan et al., 2019; Humphreys et al., 2015), we selected a recessive model in this study. Children with two minor alleles (ss for 5‐HTTLPR, 10.10 for STin2) were coded as 1 and the others were coded as 0.…”

“…These moderation effects were not found among children with ls or ll alleles. These results suggest that having ss alleles might be associated with greater sensitivity toward environments (Caplan et al., 2019).…”

“…Since the connection between the ACC and amygdala also decreases among 5‐HTTLPR short variant carriers, 5‐HTTLPR short variant carriers are more likely to experience exaggerated emotional reactivity and increased fear responses to negative stimuli (Pezawas et al., 2005). According to a recent study (Caplan et al., 2019), having 5‐HTTLPR ss alleles is negatively associated with children's social skills. However, when children with ss alleles received more positive parenting, these children were more likely to develop greater responsibility.…”