The measurement of masculinity and femininity: Engendering categorical realities

Abstract

Tbe study of gender attnbutes, masculinity and femininity, bas comprised a major researcb program in twentieth-century psychology Historical examination reveals that this research program has produced not cumulative discovery but a pattern of repetition and reification Researchers have repeatedly attempted to ensure the reahtv of masculmity and femininity, and have even introduced methodological techniques that privilege their observational statements on that reality Similar patterns have occurred m tbe case of androgyny research, despite expectations that the androgyny construct would remedy the shortcomings of masculinity and femininity concepts When analyzed in historical context, these gender concepts are found to share ethnopsychological ongins-roots m social practices and prescriptions Contextual analysis also provides telhng details about researchers normative interests If we choose to terminate sucb fruitless ventures and to generate novel understandings of the social world, then we must undertake critical self-appraisal and adopt a new metatheoretical grounding When the protagonist of Virginia Woolf s Orlando is suddenly transformed from male to female, he/she has minimal difficulty adjusting to a new form The recent shift from the bipolar, apparently antiquated concepts of masculinity and femininity to one of androgyny, though purportedly a major reformulation, actually intimates a similar facile accommodation While different m kind, both changes rely on mundane oppositions-those cultural concepts tbat ordinarily signify masculine and feminine Both changes constitute fairly undramatic revisions rather than radical transformationsThe study of femininity and masculinity, comprising a massive scientific project across 90 years of expenmental psychology, depicts a curious recurrence of these cultural concepts The research exemplifies the repetition, with minor modifications, of several central stipulations about masculinity and femininity Conventional literaRequests for reprints should be sent to J C Morawski,

Manutenção de desigualdades na avaliação do gênero na psicologia brasileira

“…Diferenças eram constatadas em tarefas como associação de ideias, preferência por cores, caligrafi a, memorização de imagens, velocidade de leitura, capacidade para o cuidado de crianças pequenas (Morawski, 1985). Nos Estados Unidos, por exemplo, onde a pesquisa psicológica se desenvolvia amplamente, esse viés que privilegiava os homens se instalou com força (Minton, 2000).…”

“…As pesquisas sobre as diferenças entre homens e mulheres também aumentava, mas envolta em grande confusão já que, no geral, os estudos não chegavam a uma conclusão que favorecesse claramente a um ou outro (Morawski, 1985). Foram Lewis Terman e Catherine Miles que, em 1936, oferecem uma solução para esse impasse.…”

“…No contexto norte americano as teorias psicanalíticas ganhavam fôlego e com elas a compreensão de que a diferença sexual era um atributo psíquico central para a personalidade, não acessível à consciência (o que justifi cava uma avaliação externa), e que seguiria um desenvolvimento tido como normal (Morawski, 1985). Ou seja, uma pessoa emocionalmente saudável seria aquela que teve o sexo feminino atribuído ao nascer, identifi cada como mulher, conformada e se comportando de acordo com as expec-tativas sociais apropriadas para a personalidade feminina da época e, heterossexual.…”

Cross fertilizations between social Psychology of science and science feminist' studies

“…Una historia contextual, past-minded, crítica y más inclusiva, que acuda a fuentes originales (Furumoto, 1992b;Harris, 1997) y que incluya la experiencia subjetiva de los actores individuales -esto último incorporado especialmente por las historiógrafas feministas (Elizabeth Scarborough y Laurel Furumoto, 1987;Ellen Herman, 1995)-. De esta tradición crítica y reflexiva sobre el conocimiento psicológico, se ha generado una considerable bibliografía sobre análisis psicosociales-historiográficos feministas de la psicología (Morawski, 1982(Morawski, , 1984b(Morawski, , 1985(Morawski, , 1988Miriam Lewin, 1984;Janis Bohan, 1992;Erica Burman, 1998b), así como análisis críticos sobre la ideología racista y homófoba/lesbófoba (Stephen Gould, 1997;Graham Richards, 1997;Herman, 1994), individualista, capitalista, nacionalista y militarista de la psicología (Edward Sampson, 1983;Jill Morawski y Sharon Goldstein, 1985;Fernando Álvarez-Uría y Julia Varela, 1986;Isaac Prilleltensky, 1989;Herman, 1995, entre otros).…”

Gender stereotyping within career and technical education : exploring relationships among gender, coursetaking, and outcomes of high school CTE students.

“…This basic human attribute seems so simple on the surface; however, the concept of sex, gender, and its influence on human behavior is one of the most studied and debated in all of psychology, with gender-related theories dating back to the beginnings of psychology (Morawski, 1985). It is easy to proclaim that all humans are gendered, but relating this abstraction to the concrete decisions that individuals make in their daily lives is a more difficult task.…”