The Macro‐Regional Scale of Silver Production in Iberia During the First Millennium BC in the Context of Mediterranean Contacts

Abstract

Summary The extraction of silver has traditionally been considered as one of the main incentives for the Phoenician expansion throughout the Mediterranean and their settlement in Iberia. In this paper, we approach the organization of silver production in Iberia during the Early Iron Age through the study of the evidence of production currently available and the development of Lead Isotope Analysis (LIA). Previous results (Hunt 2003; Stos Gale 2001; Kassianidou 1992) are considered in the light of new data. The extraction of silver from complex minerals noticeably intensifies in south‐west Iberia. Imports of exogenous lead, needed for the extraction of silver from these complex minerals, are evident. Supplies of lead come in from other regions of Iberia, such as Gádor, Cartagena/Mazarrón, Linares or even the mining district of Molar‐Belmunt‐Falset (MBF) in Catalonia. This picture reveals that the organization of silver production was much more complex than initially thought, with the articulation of an exchange network of raw materials at a macro‐territorial scale embracing almost all Iberia. The socioeconomic implications that control of these networks of lead distribution could have had are also discussed.

Lead isotopes in silver reveal earliest Phoenician quest for metals in the west Mediterranean

“…49, Fig. 1), 15 km south of the Argentiera silver-rich lead deposit, characterized by isotopic values that differ from those of the Iglesiente ores (28). Our finds therefore show that silver from Iglesiente was produced by cupellation and shipped eastward already in the mid-10th century BCE, 150-200 y before Phoenician settlement in this region is attested.…”

“…The innovative processes involved in silver production and trade in Iberia are attributed to the Phoenicians (27,28). They required complex organization and know-how for mining the two ore types (galena and jarosite), smelting and mobilizing Pb, extracting silver via cupellation, and finally transporting the silver to the east (55).…”

“…Phoenician exploitation of silver-rich ores is currently associated by scholars with Sardinia and southern Iberia (13). In Iberia, silver production is considered a Phoenician innovation (27,28), while for Sardinia there is no clear evidence to suggest otherwise (29)(30)(31). The significant occurrence of silver-rich ores in these regions is particularly noteworthy in view of the scarcity of ancient silver artifacts there (28,29).…”

“…In Iberia, silver production is considered a Phoenician innovation (27,28), while for Sardinia there is no clear evidence to suggest otherwise (29)(30)(31). The significant occurrence of silver-rich ores in these regions is particularly noteworthy in view of the scarcity of ancient silver artifacts there (28,29). In contrast, numerous Iron Age (11th to 6th centuries BCE) silver objects and hoards are known from the southern Levant, including abundant finds that specifically date to the postulated precolonization epoch (refs.…”

Plata semirrefinada para los plateros de la Edad del Hierro en el Mediterráneo: un mecanismo para identificar la plata ibérica

“…5): In Greece (and at any other location en route where silver was transported), there would be dilution of the Iberian compositional and isotopic signatures as lead from local sources (e.g. from Laurion on Attica in Greece) was added to refine the ingots; In the Levant, an Iberian signature would be maintained (such as the silver in table 3 from the southern Levant) as the lead used by the silversmiths derived from different parts of Iberia (Murillo-Barroso et al 2016). In fact, one silver piece from Eshtemoa (EST013) was recorded as having high levels of bismuth (Oxalid 2019), which along with its LIA values further supports a south-west Iberian provenance (Tabs.…”