The key to top-level endurance running performance: a unique example: Table 1

Abstract

Endurance running performance depends on a complex interplay of factors, including: (1) a high maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 MAX); (2) the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO 2 MAX for long periods of time (fractional utilisation of VO 2 MAX); and (3) the ability to move efficiently (ie, "cost of running" or "running economy"). 1 2 Although VO 2 MAX and fractional utilisation of VO 2 MAX have been extensively studied as determinants of running performance, by comparison, running economy has been relatively ignored in the scientific literature, though it may be the critical factor determining endurance running performance. 1 Differences amongst elite athletes in a variety of endurance sporting events other than running (particularly road cycling) have also been shown to be highly related to differences in economy (or efficiency). 3 The physiological index of endurance performance that improved most in seven-time winner of the Tour de France Lance Armstrong as he matured from age 21 to 28 years was gross mechanical efficiency (+8%), whereas his VO 2 MAX remained relatively unchanged. 4

Lower Leg Length is Associated with Running Economy in High Level Caucasian Distance Runners

“…The participation criteria were (i) regular training sessions during the last three years for a minimum of five times per week, (ii) average monthly mileage during the last year of at least 240 km, (iii) inclusion in the top 10 on the National Athletics Association ranking list, and (iv) competing at international level. The best performance of the previous competition season (3-4 months before the study) of the athletes was established using the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) Scoring Tables (Legaz and Eston, 2005; Lucia et al, 2008; Mooses et al, 2015a, b; Spiriev, 2011). These tables assign a definite score to each performance, enabling comparison between different events (Legaz and Eston, 2005; Mooses et al, 2015a).…”

“…Although the body composition of runners has been examined extensively, often these studies have been conducted with relatively heterogeneous groups of runners (Arrese and Ostariz, 2006; Winter and Hamley, 1976). Furthermore, despite a number of analyses focused on different anthropometric variables in top level runners (Kong and de Heer, 2008; Lucia et al, 2006, 2008), there is a paucity of studies examining different leg proportions in relation with running performance and RE. With recent development in equipment, this has become easy and cost effective by using the Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) method.…”

Unique among unique. Is it genetically determined?: Table 1

“…In i) this runner, ii) six runners of Caucasian (Spanish) origin (meeting the criteria of having won the Spanish XC championships (long race) at least once with excellent performances in the XCW, i.e., top 20 in ⩾ one edition) and iii) two other top-level African runners (one Eritrean (top seven at least once in the XCW long race) and one from Zimbabwe (top 16)), we determined genotypes of several genes that are candidates to influence endurance phenotype traits at baseline and/or in response to training (especially muscle efficiency, e.g., running economy (RE), a key determinant factor of endurance running performance1). …”

“…The polymorphisms of the genes we studied, together with a summary of their main potential roles, are listed below: i) R577X of the α-actinin-3 ( ACTN3 ) gene (involved in muscles’ ability to produce fast contractions while avoiding damage originated by eccentric muscle contractions such as those involved in running)1 2; ii) I/D of the angiotensin-converting enzyme ( ACE ) gene (cardiovascular and skeletal muscle function, training response of muscle efficiency and hypertrophy3 4); iii) Gly482Ser of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α ( PPARGC1A ) gene (mitochondrial biogenesis and skeletal muscle fibre-type conversion, i.e., II→I)5; iv) C34T of the skeletal muscle-specific isoform of AMP deaminase ( AMPD1 ) gene (salvage of adenine nucleotides and regulation of muscle glycolysis during intense exercise)6; v) 985 bp/1170 bp of the muscle-specific creatine kinase (CKMM) gene (energy buffering in skeletal muscle fibres, tolerance to skeletal muscle damage)7; vi) K153R, E164K, P198A and I225T of the myostatin (growth and differentiation factor, GDF8 ) gene (muscle strength)8 – 10 and vii) H63D of the hereditary haemochromatosis ( HFE ) gene (iron storing capacity in response to iron supplementation with no deleterious health effects) 11…”

“…Based on previous research data1–7 10 11 we hypothesised what could be an ideal genotype combination for an endurance runner, ie, among other capabilities, allowing his / her skeletal muscles to produce (i) high force and very fast contractions if needed (at the end of the race), (ii) highest possible outputs at the lowest oxygen cost (ie, high running economy (RE)), iii) to minimise muscle damage after hard running bouts, and iv) to maintain a good energetic status during intense exercise (table 1). Improved ventricular–vascular coupling (reduced after-load) and the ability to tolerate iron supplements are other potential advantages associated with the champion’s ideal genotype combination.…”