The Influence of Declining Air Lead Levels on Blood Lead–Air Lead Slope Factors in Children

Richmond-Bryant, Jennifer; Meng, Qingyu; Davis, Allen; Cohen, Jonathan B.; Lu, Shou‐En; Svendsgaard, David J.; Brown, James S.; Tuttle, Lauren; Hubbard, Heidi; Rice, John; Kirrane, Ellen; Vinikoor-Imler, Lisa; Kotchmar, Dennis; Hines, Erin P.; Ross, Muriel D.

doi:10.1289/ehp.1307072

Cited by 21 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…Lead can still be measured in outside air, and air may constitute an important source of lead exposure for some families. 95 Arsenic is found in contaminated drinking water resulting from arsenical soil, including in some parts of the U.S., with secondary sources including arsenic-treated wood, arsenic-containing pesticides, and some dietary sources (e.g., rice). Mercury exposure, especially the most toxic form, methylmercury, occurs primarily from diet, because it bioaccumulates in the environment.…”

Section: Evidence Regarding Environmental Chemical Pollutantsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Environmental Chemical Exposures and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Epidemiological Evidence

Kalkbrenner

Schmidt

Penlesky

2014

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care

240

190

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In the past decade, the number of epidemiological publications addressing environmental chemical exposures and autism has grown tremendously. These studies are important because it is now understood that environmental factors play a larger role in causing autism than previously thought and because they address modifiable risk factors that may open up avenues for the primary prevention of the disability associated with autism. In this review, we covered studies of autism and estimates of exposure to tobacco, air pollutants, volatile organic compounds and solvents, metals (from air, occupation, diet, dental amalgams, and thimerosal-containing vaccines), pesticides, and organic endocrine-disrupting compounds such as flame retardants, non-stick chemicals, phthalates, and bisphenol A. We included studies that had individual-level data on autism, exposure measures pertaining to pregnancy or the 1st year of life, valid comparison groups, control for confounders, and adequate sample sizes. Despite the inherent error in the measurement of many of these environmental exposures, which is likely to attenuate observed associations, some environmental exposures showed associations with autism, especially traffic-related air pollutants, some metals, and several pesticides, with suggestive trends for some volatile organic compounds (e.g., methylene chloride, trichloroethylene, and styrene) and phthalates. Whether any of these play a causal role requires further study. Given the limited scope of these publications, other environmental chemicals cannot be ruled out, but have not yet been adequately studied. Future research that addresses these and additional environmental chemicals, including their most common routes of exposures, with accurate exposure measurement pertaining to several developmental windows, is essential to guide efforts for the prevention of the neurodevelopmental damage that manifests in autism symptoms.

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Section: Evidence Regarding Environmental Chemical Pollutantsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Environmental Chemical Exposures and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Epidemiological Evidence

Kalkbrenner

Schmidt

Penlesky

2014

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care

240

190

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“…Current sources of airborne lead include lead battery recycling operations, piston engine aircraft, and incinerators. 49 The contributions of airborne lead to children's blood lead concentrations are proportionately greater at the lower levels of exposure than at higher levels. 49 Other sources of lead intake for children have been identified, such as nutritional supplements and folk medicines, ceramic dishware, and cosmetics [50][51][52] (Table 3).…”

Section: Sources and Variability Of Lead Exposurementioning

confidence: 99%

Prevention of Childhood Lead Toxicity

Lanphear¹,

Lowry²,

Ahdoot³

et al. 2016

Pediatrics

178

140

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Blood lead concentrations have decreased dramatically in US children over the past 4 decades, but too many children still live in housing with deteriorated lead-based paint and are at risk for lead exposure with resulting lead-associated cognitive impairment and behavioral problems. Evidence continues to accrue that commonly encountered blood lead concentrations, even those below 5 µg/dL (50 ppb), impair cognition; there is no identified threshold or safe level of lead in blood. From 2007 to 2010, approximately 2.6% of preschool children in the United States had a blood lead concentration ≥5 µg/dL (≥50 ppb), which represents about 535 000 US children 1 to 5 years of age. Evidence-based guidance is available for managing increased lead exposure in children, and reducing sources of lead in the environment, including lead in housing, soil, water, and consumer products, has been shown to be cost-beneficial. Primary prevention should be the focus of policy on childhood lead toxicity.

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“…30 In Case 2, the background annual lead in TSP is 0.4 μg/m 3 . This corresponds to the 90 th percentile value of the yearly maximum 3-month average lead TSP from the EPA Air Trends study in 2005 and the mean value for 1994 using 12 monitoring sites.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 98%

“…Several studies use historical data to develop regression models that estimate the impact of changes in PbA measured in Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) on children’s PbB, by controlling for factors that could be predictors for non-recent air pathways, like geographic location, home age, and race/ethnicity. 30–37 Based on these studies, this work considers eight concentration response functions consisting of two functional forms for the PbA (μg/m 3 in TSP) to PbB (μg/dL) relationship. The first relates ln(PbA) to ln(PbB) (ln-ln) according to: ln(PbB)=β · ln(PbA)+γ.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Costs of IQ Loss from Leaded Aviation Gasoline Emissions

Wolfe

Giang

Ashok

et al. 2016

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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In the United States, general aviation piston-driven aircraft are now the largest source of lead emitted to the atmosphere. Elevated lead concentrations impair children’s IQ and can lead to lower earnings potentials. This study is the first assessment of the nationwide annual costs of IQ losses from aircraft lead emissions. We develop a general aviation emissions inventory for the continental United States and model its impact on atmospheric concentrations using the Community Multi-Scale Air Quality Model (CMAQ). We use these concentrations to quantify the impacts of annual aviation lead emissions on the U.S. population using two methods: through static estimates of cohort-wide IQ deficits and through dynamic economy-wide effects using a computational general equilibrium model. We also examine the sensitivity of these damage estimates to different background lead concentrations, showing the impact of lead controls and regulations on marginal costs. We find that aircraft-attributable lead contributes to $1.06 billion 2006 USD ($0.01 – $11.6) in annual damages from lifetime earnings reductions, and that dynamic economy-wide methods result in damage estimates that are 54% larger. Because the marginal costs of lead are dependent on background concentration, the costs of piston-driven aircraft lead emissions are expected to increase over time as regulations on other emissions sources are tightened.

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The Influence of Declining Air Lead Levels on Blood Lead–Air Lead Slope Factors in Children

Cited by 21 publications

References 15 publications

Environmental Chemical Exposures and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Epidemiological Evidence

Environmental Chemical Exposures and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Epidemiological Evidence

Prevention of Childhood Lead Toxicity

Costs of IQ Loss from Leaded Aviation Gasoline Emissions

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