The Health and Development of Young Children Who Witnessed Their Parent’s Arrest Prior to Parental Jail Incarceration

Abstract

Most U.S. incarceration occurs in jails, with more than 10 million annual admissions, and most individuals in jail are parents of minor children. In this short-term longitudinal study, we examined the health and development of young children who did or did not witness their parent’s arrest prior to parental jail incarceration. 228 individuals in 76 triads (incarcerated parents, children, at-home caregivers) were enrolled from four jails in two states. Jailed parents and caregivers reported on whether the child witnessed the parent’s arrest or crime. Children’s caregivers completed questionnaires about children’s emotional symptoms during the prior 6 months and demographics, as well as children’s emotional reactions to separation from the parent and child health at the initial assessment and 2 weeks later. Trained researchers conducted a developmental assessment with children while waiting to visit parents. Results of regression-based moderated mediation analyses indicated that when their emotional symptoms were high, children who witnessed parental arrest were more likely to have poorer health initially and more intense negative reactions to the parent leaving for jail. In addition, when children’s general emotional symptoms were low, children who witnessed their parent’s arrest were more likely to exhibit developmental delays, especially in their early academic skills, compared to children who did not witness the arrest. Witnessing the parent’s crime related to missed milestones in social and adaptive development. Findings have implications for policies regarding safeguarding children during parental arrest and referrals for health- and development-promotion services following parental criminal justice system involvement.

Witnessing Parental Arrest As a Predictor of Child Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms During and After Parental Incarceration

“…Dallaire & Wilson ( 2010 ) found that witnessing parental arrest was associated with poorer emotional regulation skills, lower receptive vocabulary scores, and increased anxious and depressed behaviors for children compared to children with incarcerated parents who did not witness their parents being arrested. In another study on this topic, Poehlmann-Tynan and colleagues ( 2021 ) found that witnessing parental arrests and experiences of stress related to this incident predicted missed developmental milestones, poorer academic skills, and physical health concerns. Most recently, Muentner and colleagues ( 2021 ) found that children who witnessed their father’s arrest experienced higher levels of stress hormones along with “blunted” physiological stress levels.…”

“…Notably, much of the recent literature in this area specifically examines populations up to age eight (e.g., Muentner et al, 2021 ; Poehlmann-Tynan et al, 2021 ), with little examination of how effects might vary as children age. This is particularly important in the context of prior literature on development for children with incarcerated parents, which suggests that risks and impacts of incarceration affect children differently beginning at approximately age eight, at which point emotional difficulties and attention concerns may transition to externalizing behaviors and difficulty in school (e.g., Poehlmann-Tynan & Turney 2020 ).…”

“…Ambiguous loss theory suggests that the departure of a family member causes “boundary uncertainty” (Bocknek et al, 2009 ), a significant stressor for children. Both the physical loss of a parent and the child’s subsequent uncertainty of the separation affects their perception about who is and who is not a part of the family system (Poehlmann-Tynan et al, 2021 ). However, many children also experience situations that generate acute trauma associated with the incarceration of a parent, such as directly witnessing the incident of arrest (Poehlmann-Tynan, 2022 ; Phillips & Zhao, 2010 ; Roberts et al, 2014 ).…”

Towards family preservation: A systematic jurisdiction analysis of prison visitation policies during the COVID-19 pandemic.

“…Evidence also suggests that remote forms of contact offer viable alternatives to increasing positive parent–child connections (Murdoch & King, 2020). Visits can also alleviate negative feelings (e.g., guilt, rejection) surrounding ambiguous loss and memories of a parent's arrest (Arditti, 2016; Poehlmann-Tynan et al, 2021). Moreover, because social support and increased interaction with children can reduce parenting stress and recidivism, visiting has indirect effects on the well-being of children and the intergenerational cycle of incarceration (Arditti, 2016).…”

Struggle Outside Jails: Scoping Review of Impacts and Resiliency Among Children of Incarcerated Parents

“…Parents have an essential role in determining the success of a children's development and are very influential on the psychological condition of the child ( Lacey et al, 2020). The absence of parents physically and emotionally will have very significant negative consequences, both in terms of mental health and family dysfunction (Hall et al, 2021;Lacey et al, 2022;Rampersaud et al, 2022), one of which is caused by parental arrest (Metcalfe et al, 2022;Noel & Hoeben, 2022;Poehlmann-Tynan et al, 2021) which is felt directly by the child. According to Kusnandar in Databoks (2022), which reported news from the Directorate General of Corrections of the Ministry of Law and Human Rights of the Republic of Indonesia, in 2022, there were 227,431 inmates in prisons and 48,741 detainees in detention centers.…”